The Art of Bookbinding. a Practical Treatise, by Joseph W. Zaehnsdorf, A Project Gutenberg eBook.

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I must again call attention to coloured plates. They should be looked to during the whole of binding, especially after pressing. The amount of gum that is put on the surface, which is very easily seen by the gloss, causes them to stick to the letter-press: should they so stick, do not try to tear them apart, but warm a polishing iron and pass it over the plate and letter-press, placing a piece of paper between the iron and the book to avoid dirt.

The heat and moisture will soften the gum, and the surfaces can then be very easily separated. By rubbing a little powdered French chalk over the coloured plates before sticking them in, these ill effects will be avoided.

The whole book should then be pressed for a few hours, taken out, and the back glued up; the back having been previously roughed with the side edge of the saw.

To glue such a back, the book is placed in the lying press between boards, with the back projecting about an eighth of an inch, the saw is then drawn over it, with its side edge, so that the paper is as it were rasped.

The back is then sawn in properly, as explained in the next chapter, and the whole back is glued. When dry, the 18 book is separated into divisions or sections of four, six, or eight leaves, according to the thickness of the paper, and each section is then overcast or over sewn along its whole length, the thread being fastened at the head and tail or top and bottom ; thus each section is made independent of its neighbour.

The sections should then be gently struck along the back edge with a hammer against a knocking-down iron, so as to imbed the thread into the paper, or the back will be too thick.

The thread should not be struck so hard as to cut the paper, or break the thread, but very gently. Two or three sections may be taken at a time. After having placed the plates, the book should be put into the press standing or otherwise for a few hours.

A standing press is used in all good bookbinding shops. The Paris houses have a curious way of pressing their books. The books are placed in the standing press; the top and bottom boards are very thick, having a groove cut in them in which a strong thin rope is placed.

The press is screwed down tightly, when, after some few minutes has elapsed, the cord or rope is drawn together and fastened. The pressure of the screw is released, the whole taken out en bloc, and allowed to remain for some hours, during which time a number of other batches are passed through the same press.

A single leaf of writing paper is now to be fastened in the centre of each section, and a folded leaf 19 placed to every folded letter-press leaf, by inserting the one within the other, a folded writing paper being left outside every other section, and all being put level with the head; the whole book should then be well pressed.

If by any chance there should be one sheet in duplicate and another missing, by returning the one to the publisher of the book the missing sheet is generally replaced; this, of course, has reference only to books of a recent date.

There is a new press of American invention that has come under my notice. It will be seen that it acts on an entirely new principle, having two horizontal screws instead of one perpendicular.

The power is first applied by hand and finally by a lever and ratchet-wheel in the centre. A pressure guage is affixed to each press, so that the actual power exerted may be ascertained as the operation proceeds. The press can be had from Messrs.

Ladd and Co. The books having been in the press a sufficient time, say for a night, they are taken out, and run through again collated to make sure that they are all correct.

They should be held between the fingers of each hand, and the back and head knocked alternately on the cheek of the press. The boards are then drawn back the required distance from the back of the book: the book and boards must now be held tightly with the left hand, and the whole carefully lowered into the press; the right hand regulating the screws, which should then be screwed up tightly.

The book is now quite straight, and firmly fixed in the press, and we have to decide if it is to be sewn flexibly or not. If for flexible binding the book is not to be sawn in , but marked; the difference being, that with the latter the cord is outside the sheets ; with the former the cord is imbedded in the back , in the cut or groove made by the saw.

We will take the flexible first, and suppose that the book before us is an ordinary 8vo. The back should be divided into six equal portions, leaving the bottom, or tail, half an inch longer than the rest, simply because of a curious optical illusion, by which, 21 if the spaces were all equal in width, the bottom one would appear to be the smallest, although accurately of the same width as the rest.

This curious effect may be tested on any framed or mounted print. A square is now to be laid upon the back exactly to the marks, and marked pretty black with a lead pencil; the head and tail must now be sawn in to imbed the chain of the kettle stitch, at a distance sufficient to prevent the thread being divided by accident in cutting. In flexible work great accuracy is absolutely necessary throughout the whole of the work, especially in the marking up, as the form of the bands will be visible when covered.

It will be easily seen if the book has been knocked up straight by laying the square at the head when the book is in the press, and if it is not straight, it must be taken out and corrected.

If the book is very small, as for instance a small prayer book, it is usually marked up for five bands, but only sewed on three; the other two being fastened on as false bands when the book is ready for covering. There would be no gain in strength by sewing a small book on five bands. In choosing the saw, it should be one with the teeth not spread out too much; and it is advisable to have two of different widths.

Care must be taken that the saw does not enter too deeply, and one 22 must, in all cases, be guided in the depth by the thickness of the cord to be used. The size of the book should determine the thickness of the cord, as the larger the book, the stronger and thicker must be the cord.

I think nothing looks worse than a book with great holes in the back, sometimes to be seen when the book is opened, which are due to the inattention of the workmen. Besides, it causes great inconvenience to the forwarder if the cords are loose, and the only thing he can do in such a case is to cram a lot of glue into the grooves to keep the cord in its place. If, on the other hand, the saw cuts are 23 not deep enough, the cord will stand out from the back, and be distinctly seen when the book is finished, if not remedied by extra strips of leather or paper between the bands when lining up.

It is better to use double thin cord instead of one thick one for large books, because the two cords will lie and imbed themselves in the back, whereas one large one will not, unless very deep and wide saw cuts be made. Large folios should be sawn on six or seven bands, but five for an 8vo. Saw benches have been introduced by various firms. They can be driven either by steam or foot.

It will be seen that the saws are circular, and can be shifted on the spindle to suit the various sized books. As the books themselves are slid along the table on the saws, the advantage is very great in a large shop where much work of one size is done at a time.

Flexible Work. Five pieces of cord cut from the ball, in length, about four times the thickness of the book, are fastened to the lay cords by slip knots; the other ends being fastened to small pieces of metal called keys, by twisting the ends round twice and then a half hitch. Having the book on the bed of the press with the back towards the sewer, a few sheets better than only one are laid against the cords, and they are arranged exactly to the marks made on the back of the sections.

When quite true and perpendicular, they should be made tight by screwing the beam up. It will be better if the cords are a little to the right of the press, so that the sewer may get her or his left arm to rest better on the press. If when the press is tightened one of the cords is loose, as will sometimes happen, a pencil, folding-stick or other object slipped under the lay cord on the top of the beam will tighten the band sufficiently.

The foreign sewing presses have screws with a hook at the end to hold the bands, the screws running in a slot in the beam: in practice they are very convenient. The first and last sections are overcast usually with cotton or very fine thread. The first sheet is now to be laid against the bands, and the needle introduced through the kettle stitch hole on the right of the book, which is the 25 head.

The left hand being within the centre of the sheet, the needle is taken with it, and thrust out on the left of the mark made for the first band; the needle being taken with the right hand, is again introduced on the right of the same band, thus making a complete circle round it.

This is repeated with each band in succession, and the needle brought out of the kettle stitch hole on the left or tail of the sheet. A new sheet is now placed on the top, and treated in a similar way, by introducing the needle at the left end or tail; and when taken out at the right end or top, the thread must be fastened by a knot to the end, hanging from the first sheet, which is left long enough for the purpose.

A third sheet having been sewn in like manner, 2 the needle must be brought out at the kettle stitch, thrust between the two sheets first sewn, and drawn round the thread, thus fastening each sheet to its neighbour by a kind of chain stitch. This class of work must be done very neatly and evenly, but it is easily done with a little practice and patience. This is the strongest sewing executed at the present day, but it is very seldom done, as it takes three or four times as long as the ordinary sewing.

The thread must be drawn tightly each time it is passed round the band, and at the end properly fastened off at the kettle stitch, or the sections will work loose in course of time. Old books were always sewn in this manner, and when two or double bands were used, the thread was twisted twice round one on sewing one section, and twice round the other on sewing the next, or once round each cord. When the head-band was worked in sewing, the book was, of course, not afterwards cut at the edges.

When this was done, wooden boards were used instead of mill boards, and twisted leather instead of cord, and when the book was covered, a groove was made between each double band. This way is still imitated by sticking a second band or cord alongside the one made in sewing, before the book is covered. The thickness of the cord must always be in proportion to the size and thickness of the book, and the thickness of the thread must depend on the sheets, whether they be half sheets or whole sheets.

If the sections are thick or few, a thick thread must be used to give the thickness necessary to produce a good groove. If the book is of moderate thickness, the sections may be knocked down by occasionally tapping them with a piece 28 of wood loaded at one end with lead, or a thick folding-stick may be used as a substitute. I must again call particular attention to the kettle stitch. The thread must not be drawn too tight in making the chain, or the thread will break in backing ; but still a proper tension must be kept or the sheets will wear loose.

The last sheet should be fastened with a double knot round the kettle stitch two or three sections down, and that section must be sewn all along. The next style of sewing, and most generally used throughout the trade, is the ordinary method. Ordinary Sewing is somewhat different, inasmuch as the thread is not twisted round the cord, as in flexible work, when the cord is outside the section.

In this method the cord fits into the saw cuts. The thread is simply passed over the cord, not round it, otherwise the principle of sewing is the same, that is, the thread is passed right along the section, out of the holes made, and into them again; the kettle stitch being made in the same way.

This style of work has one advantage over flexible work, because the back of the book can be better gilt. In flexible work, the leather is attached with paste to the back, and is flexed, and bent, each time the book is opened, and there is great risk of the gold splitting away or being detached from the leather in wear.

Books sewn in the ordinary method are made with a hollow or loose back, and when the book is opened, the crease in the back is independent of the leather covering; the lining of the back only is creased, and the leather keeps its perfect form, by reason of the lining giving it a spring outwards.

Morocco is generally used for flexible work; calf, being without a grain, is not suitable, as it would show all the creases in the back made by the opening. This class of sewing is excellent for books that do not require so much strength, such as library bindings, 3 but for a dictionary or the like, where constant 29 reference or daily use is required, I should sew a book flexibly. Some binders sew their books in the ordinary way, and paste the leather directly to the back, and thus pass it for flexible work; but I do not think any respectable house would do so.

A book that has been sewed flexibly will not have any saw cut in the back , so that on examination, by opening it wide, it will at once be seen if it is a real flexible binding or not. Intelligence must, however, be used; a book that has already been cased or bound and sewn on cords must of necessity have the saw cuts or holes, and such a book would show the cuts. A thin cord is then taken doubled for each band, and the book is sewn the ordinary flexible way; the cord is knocked into the back in forwarding, and the leather may be stuck on a hollow back with bands, or it may be fastened to the back itself without bands.

However simple it may appear in description to sew a book, it requires great judgment to keep down the swelling of the book to the proper amount necessary to form a good backing groove and no more. In order to do this, the sheets must from time to time be gently tapped down with a piece of wood or a heavy folding-stick, and great care must be observed to avoid drawing the fastening of the kettle stitch too tight, or the head and tail of the book will be thinner than the middle; this fault once committed has no remedy.

With regard to books that have had the heads cut, it will be necessary to open each sheet carefully up to the back before it is placed on the press, otherwise the centre may not be caught, and two or more leaves will be detached after the book is bound.

The first and last sections of every book should be overcast for strength. With regard to books that are composed of single leaves, they are treated of in Chapter III. When a book is sewn, it is taken from the sewing press by slackening the screws which tighten the beam, so that the cord may be easily detached from the keys and lay cords. The cord may be left at its full length until the end papers are about to be put on, when it must be reduced to about three inches.

It will not, in my opinion, ever be found eligible for library or standard books. Its high price will debar it from the trade generally; but it is to be feared that a sufficient number of really good books may be sewn with it to cause embarrassment to the first-rate binder, who will be baffled in making good work of books which may have been damaged by the invention of sewing books with wire. The novelty of this machine is, that the book is sewn with wire instead of thread.

The machine is fed with wire from spools by small steel rollers, which at each revolution supply exactly the length of wire required to form little staples with two legs. Of these staples, the machine makes at every revolution as many as are required 32 for each sheet of the book that is being sewn—generally two or three, or more, as necessary.

These wires or staples are forced through the sections from the inside of the folds; and as the tapes are stretched, and held by clasps exactly opposite to each staple-forming and inserting apparatus, the legs of each staple penetrate the tapes, and project through them to a sufficient distance to allow of their being bent inwards towards each other, and pressed firmly against the tapes.

About two thousand pamphlets or sheets can be sewn in one hour. These arms rotate, rise, and adjust the sheets, so as to bring them in their proper position under the curved needles. As each arm rises, small holes are pierced, by means of punches in the sheets, from the inside, to facilitate the entrance and egress of the needles.

The loopers then receive a lateral movement to tighten the stitch, and this movement is made adjustable, in order that books may be sewn tight or loose, as required.

About 20, sheets can be sewn in a day, and no previous sawing is required. Thread is used with this machine.

End Papers. I give a slight idea of the kinds of papers used and the method of making them. Cobb Paper is a paper used generally for half-calf bindings, with a sprinkled edge, or as a change, half-calf, gilt top. The paper is stained various shades and colours in the making, and I think derives its name from a binder who first used it. Surface Paper. Some kinds are left dull and others are glazed.

The darker colours of this paper are generally chosen for Bibles or books of a religious character, and the lighter colours for the cloth or case work. There are many other shades which may be put into extra bindings with very good effect, and will exercise the taste of the workman. For example, a good cream, when of fine colour and good quality, will look very well in a morocco book with either cloth or morocco joints.

Marbled Paper. It is produced by sprinkling properly prepared colours upon the surface of a size, made either of a vegetable emulsion, 34 or of a solution of resinous gum. It is necessary, in either preparing an original design or in matching an example, to remember that the veins are the first splashes of colour thrown on the size, and assume that form in consequence of being driven back by the successive colours employed.

We have it on the authority of Mr. Woolnough, 5 that the old Dutch paper was wrapped round toys in order to evade the duty imposed upon it. After being carefully smoothed out, it was sold to bookbinders at a very high price, who used it upon their extra bindings, and if the paper was not large enough they were compelled to join it. After a time the manufacture was introduced into England, but either the colours are not prepared the same way, or the paper itself may not be so suitable, the colours are not brought out with such vigour and beauty, nor do they stand so well, as on the old Dutch paper.

Some secret of the art has been lost, and it baffles our ablest marblers of the present day to reproduce many of the beautiful examples that may be seen in some of the old books. Printed and other Fancy Paper may be bought at fancy stationers; the variety is so great that description is impossible, but good taste and judgment should always be used by studying the style and colour of binding.

Of late years a few firms have paid some attention to this branch, and have placed in the market some very pretty patterns in various tints. The foreign binders are very fond of papers printed in bronze, and some are certainly of a most elaborate and gorgeous description. Many houses have their own favourite pattern and style. All papers having bronze on 35 them should be carefully selected and the cheaper kinds eschewed, the bronze in a short time going black.

Coloured Paste Paper. Some colour should be mixed with paste and a little soap, until it is a little thicker than cream. It should then be spread upon two sheets of paper with a paste brush.

The sheets must then be laid together with their coloured surfaces facing each other, and when separated they will have a curious wavy pattern on them. The paper should then be hung up to dry on a string stretched across the room, and when dry glazed with a hot iron. A great deal of it is used in Germany for covering books. Green, reds, and blues have a very good effect.

There are many other kinds of paper that may be used, but the above five different varieties will give a very good idea and serve as points to work from. Before leaving the subject of ends, it may be as well to mention that morocco, calf, russia, silk, etc. After having decided upon what kind of paper is to be used, two pieces are cut and folded to the size of the book, leaving them a trifle larger, especially if the book has been already cut.

Two pieces of white paper must be prepared in the same way. Having them ready, a white paper is laid down, folded, on a pasting board any old mill-board kept for this purpose , and pasted with moderately thin paste very evenly; the two fancy papers are laid on the top quite even with the back or folded edge; the top fancy paper is now to be pasted, and the other white laid on that: they must now be taken from the board, and after a squeeze in the press between pressing boards, taken out, and hung up separately to dry.

This will cause one half of the white 36 to adhere to one half of the marble or fancy paper. When they are dry, they should be refolded in the old folds and pressed for about a quarter of an hour. When there are more than one pair of ends to make, they need not be made one pair at a time, but ten or fifteen pairs may be done at once, by commencing with the one white, then two fancy, two white, and so on, until a sufficient number have been made, always pressing them to ensure the surfaces adhering properly; then hang them up to dry.

When dry press again, to make them quite flat. As this is the first time I speak about pasting , a few hints or remarks on the proper way will not be out of place here. Always draw the brush well over the paper and away from the centre, towards the edges of the paper. Do not have too much paste in the brush, but just enough to make it slide well.

Be careful that the whole surface is pasted; remove all hairs or lumps from the paper, or they will mark the book. Finally, never attempt to take up the brush from the paper before it is well drawn over the edge of the paper, or the paper will stick to the brush and turn over, with the risk of the under side being pasted.

While the ends are pressing we will proceed with further forwarding our book. The first and last sheet of every book must be pasted up or down,—it is called by both terms; and if the book has too much swelling, it must be tapped down gently with a hammer. Hold the book tightly at the foredge with the left hand, knuckles down; rest the back on the press, and hit 37 the back with the hammer to the required thickness. Screw the press up tightly, so that the sheets cannot slip. Should it happen that a slip is pulled out, nothing remains but to re-sew the book, unless it is a thin one, when it may possibly be re-inserted with a large needle.

But this will not do the book any good. The slips being pulled tight, the first and last section should be pasted to those next them. When pasted, the waste paper is removed, and the back of the section put evenly with the back of the book, which is now turned over carefully that it may not shift; the other end is treated in the same manner.

A weight should then be put on the top, or if more than a single book, one should lie on the top of the other, back and foredge alternately, each book to be half an inch within the foredge of the book next to it, with a few pressing boards on the top one. When dry the end papers are to be pasted on.

Two single leaves of white paper, somewhat thicker than the paper used for making the ends, are to be cut, one for each side of the book.

The end papers are to be laid down on a board, or on a piece of paper on the press to keep them clean, with the pasted or made side uppermost, the single leaves on the top. They should then be fanned out evenly to a proper width, about a quarter of an inch for an 8vo. The slips or cords thrown back, the white fly is put on the book, a little away from the back, and the made ends on the top even with the back, and again left to dry with the weight of a few boards on the top.

Morocco is mostly used for the leather joints. If the joints are to be of cloth, it may be added either when the ends are being put on, or when the book is ready for pasting down. The smallest fold is now glued, the white fly put on, and the fancy paper on the top; the difference being, that the paper instead of being made double or folded is single, or instead of taking a paper double the 39 size of the book and folding it, it is cut to the size of the book and pasted all over.

It will be better if the marble paper be pasted and the white put on and well rubbed down, and then the whole laid between mill-boards to dry. A piece of waste or brown paper should be slightly fastened at the back over the whole, turning the cloth down on the book to keep it clean and prevent it from getting damaged. The strongest manner is to overcast the ends and cloth joint to the first and last section of the book, as it is then almost impossible either for the cloth or ends to pull away from the book.

If, however, the cloth joint is to be put on after the book is covered, the flys and ends are only edged on with paste to the book just sufficient to hold them while it is being bound; and when the book is to be pasted down, the ends are lifted from the book by placing a thin folding-stick between the ends and book and running it along, when they will come away quite easily. The cloth is then cut and folded as before and fastened on, and the ends and flys properly pasted in the back.

Morocco joints are usually put in after the book is covered, but I prefer that if joints of any kind are to go in the book they should be put in at the same time as the ends. Take great care that the ends are quite dry after being made before attaching them, or the dampness will affect the beginning and end of the book and cause the first few leaves to wrinkle.

When the ends are quite dry the slips should be unravelled and scraped, a bodkin being used for the unravelling, and the back of a knife for the scraping.

The object of this is, that they may with greater ease be passed through the holes in the mill-board, and the bulk of the cord be more evenly distributed and beaten down, so as not to be seen after the book has been covered. Many houses cut away the slip entirely, in order that the work may look better. This should never be done; with large and heavy books it is better to allow the bulk of the cord to be seen rather than sacrifice strength.

To a certain extent this may be avoided by cutting a small portion of the mill-board away to allow the cord to lodge in.

There is another way of putting on the end papers, that is, to sew the ends on with the book when sewing. The paper is folded at the back with a small fold, the sheet placed in the fold, and the whole sewn through. It is at once apparent that under no circumstances can there be any strain on the ends, and that there is hardly any possibility of the ends breaking away from the sheets.

For books subjected to very hard wear school books, public library books, etc. See opposite page. Is the book to have a gilt top? These questions must be settled before anything further is done. If the knife is not 42 sharp the paper will yield to the slight pressure required and will not be cut.

It is therefore absolutely necessary that a good edge be given to the blade, and, if possible, to keep a special knife for the purpose. Such knives, called trimming knives, are sold, the probable cost being about two shillings. They have a very broad blade. The object of trimming is to make the edges true; the amount taken off must be only the rough and dirty edges, the book being thus left as large as possible.

The French put their books in the press between boards and rasp the edges, but this method has not only the disadvantage of showing all the marks of the rasp, but also of leaving a roughness which catches and retains the dust in proportion to the soft or hard qualities of the paper. I prefer to use the straight edge and knife for the foredge and tail, and to cut the top when the book is in boards. Another excellent plan is to set the gauge of the 43 mill-board machine, or a card-cutting machine , and to cut or trim each section, foredge and tail, by the machine knife.

In a large number of books this plan is to be recommended; the whole is cut more even and in less time; trimming by this method must, however, be done before sewing. This method is also adopted by some French houses. The curses of book lovers are daily heaped on their backs, but they go on running-a-muck, heedless of remonstrance, remorseless, ever sacrificing fresh victims.

One of the largest houses in London has just sent me home fifty copies of an essay, intended as a present for a friend. They have been trimmed, and been ruined. I therefore propose a practical measure to win these book trimmers from their enormities; namely, that fifty at least of your readers, who care for book margins, should subscribe a guinea each for a challenge cup, to be competed for yearly, and held by that firm which, on producing copies of all books and pamphlets trimmed by it during the year, shall be adjudged to have disfigured them least.

I ask you, Sir, if you will receive subscriptions for this challenge cup? If you will, I shall be glad to send you mine. A very good trimming machine has been invented by Messrs. Richmond and Co. The bed rises and falls, with the books upon it, instead of the knife descending upon the work, as in the cutting machines; and the gauges are so arranged, that the foredge of one pile of books, and the tails of another, can be cut at one operation, and it is guaranteed by the makers that the knife will leave a clean and perfectly trimmed edge.

The book must now be glued up; that is, glue must be applied to the back to hold the sections together, and make the back firm during the rounding and backing. Knock the book perfectly true at its back and head, and put it into the lying press between two pieces of old mill-board; expose the back and let it project from the boards a little, the object being to hold the book firm and to keep the slips close to the sides, so that no glue shall get on them; then with glue, not too thick, but hot, glue the back, rubbing it in with the brush, and take the overplus off again with the brush.

In some shops, a handful of shavings is used to rub the glue in, and to take the refuse away, but I consider this to be a bad plan, as a great quantity of glue is wasted. The Germans rub the glue into the back with the back of a hammer, and take away the overplus with the brush; this is certainly better than using shavings. The back must not be allowed to get too dry before it is rounded, or it will have to be damped with a sponge, to give to the glue the elasticity required, but it should not be wet, this being worse than letting it get too dry.

The book should be left for about an hour, or till it no longer feels tacky to the touch, but still retains its flexibility. A flexible bound book should first be rounded, a backing board being used to bring the sheets round instead of a hammer, then the back glued, and a piece of tape tied round the book to prevent its going back flat.

But all books are not glued up in the press; some workmen knock up a number of books, and, allowing them to project a little over their press, glue the lot up at once; others again, by holding the book in the left hand and drawing the brush up and down the back. These last methods are, however, only practised in cloth shops, where books are bound or cased at very low prices. The proper way, as I have explained, is to put the book in the lying press.

The book is then laid on its side to dry, and if more than one, they should be laid alternately back and foredge, with the back projecting about half an inch, and allowed to dry spontaneously, and on no account to be dried by the heat of a fire.

All artificial heat in drying in any process of bookbinding is injurious to the work. In rounding the back, the book is to be laid on the press before the workman with the foredge towards him; the book is then to be held with the left hand by placing the thumb on the foredge and fingers on the top of the book pointing towards the back, so that by drawing the fingers towards the thumb, or by pressing fingers and thumb together, the back is drawn towards the workman at an angle.

In this position the back is struck with the face of the hammer, beginning in the centre, still drawing the back over with the left hand. The book is then to be turned over, and the other side treated in the same way, and continually 47 changed or turned from one side to the other until it has its proper form, which should be a part of a circle.

When sufficiently rounded, it should be examined to see if one side be perfectly level with the other, by holding the book up and glancing down its back, and gently tapping the places where uneven, until it is perfectly true or uniform. The thicker the book the more difficult it will be found to round it; and some papers will be found more obstinate than others, so that great care must be exercised both in rounding and backing, as the foredge when cut will have exactly the same form as the back.

Nothing can be more annoying than to see books lop-sided, pig-backed, and with sundry other ailments, inherent to cheap bookbinding. The back when properly rounded should be about a third of a circle, according to the present mode, but in olden times they were made almost flat. They were not rounded as now done, but the swelling caused by the thread used made quite enough rounding when put in the press for backing.

Flat back books have a certain charm about them, the more so if in other respects they are properly forwarded. The theory is altogether averse to practical binding. I have always been given to understand that we round our books in order to counteract the tendency of a book to sink in and assume a convex back. Any old well-used book bound with a flat back will show at once this defect. Hopkinson and Cope, of Farringdon Road, London, manufacture a rounding machine.

The boards required for backing, called backing boards, should always be the same length as the book. They are made somewhat thicker than cutting boards, and have their tops planed at an angle, so that the sheets may fall well over. Hold the book in the left hand, lay a board on one side, a little away from the back, taking the edge of the top sheet as a guide, the distance to be a trifle more than the thickness of the boards intended to be used. Then 49 turn over the book, with the backing board, holding the board to the book by the thumb, so that it does not shift, and lay the other board at exactly the same distance on the other side.

The whole is now to be held tightly by the left hand and lowered into the press. The boards may possibly have shifted a little during the process, and any correction may now be made whilst the press holds the book before screwing up tight, such as a slight tap with the hammer to one end of a board that may not be quite straight.

Should the boards however be not quite true, it will be better to take the whole out and readjust them, rather than lose time in trying to rectify the irregularity by any other method. If the rounding is not quite true it will be seen at once, and the learner must not be disheartened if he has to take his book out of the press two or three times to correct any slight imperfection.

The book and boards having been lowered flush with the cheeks of the press, screw it up as tightly as possible with the iron hand-pin. The back of the book must now be gently struck with the back of the hammer, holding it slanting and beating the sheets well over towards the backing boards.

Commence from the centre of the back and do 50 not hit too hard, or the dent made by the hammer will show after the book has been covered. The back is to be finished with the face of the hammer, the sheets being brought well over on the boards so that a good and solid groove may be made.

Each side must be treated in the same way, and have the same amount of weight and beating. The back must have a gradual hammering, and the sheets, when knocked one way, must not be knocked back again. The hammer should be swung with a circular motion, always away from the centre of the back.

The book, when opened after backing, should be entirely without wrinkles; their presence being a sign that the workman did not know his business , or that it was carelessly done.

Backing and cutting constitute the chief work in forwarding, and if these two are not done properly the book cannot be square and solid—two great essentials in bookbinding. Backing flexible work will be found a little more difficult, as the slips are tighter; but otherwise the process is exactly the same, only care must be taken not to hammer the cord too much, and to bring over the sections very gently, in order not to break the sewing thread.

The backing boards may be replaned from time to time, as they become used, but boards may be had having a double face of steel to them; these may be used from either side.

The edges of the steel must not be sharp, or they will cut the paper when backing. The ordinary boards may also have a face of steel screwed to them, but I prefer to use the wood—one can get a firmer back without fear of cutting the sheets. There are several backing machines by different makers but they are all of similar plan. The book being first rounded is put between the cheeks, and the roller at the 51 top presses the sheets over. I am sorry to say that a great number of sheets get cut by this process, especially when a careless man has charge of the machine.

There is no occasion to wait for the book to be advanced as far as the backing before the workman sees to his boards; but he should take advantage of the period of drying to prepare them, to look out the proper thickness of the board, and to line them with paper either on one side or on both. There are now so many kinds of mill-boards made that a few words about them may not be out of place. A new board has lately appeared called leather board; it is exceedingly hard and durable.

I made several experiments with this board, but up to the present have not succeeded in getting it to lay flat on the book. The thickness is known as 6 d. Here is a list in full of all the boards likely to be used:— Having chosen the board, it is necessary to cut it up to the size wanted.

If the book is 8vo. To cut up the board, first mark up, as a guide for the mill-board shears. These are very large shears, in shape somewhat like an enlarged tin shears. To use the shears, screw up one arm in the laying press, hold the board by the left hand, using the right to work the upper arm, the left hand meanwhile guiding the board.

Some little tact is required 53 to cut heavy boards. It will be found that it is necessary to press the lower arm away with the thigh, and bring the upper arm towards the operator whilst cutting. A mill-board cutting machine is now in all large shops. The cut fairly well explains itself; the long blade descending cuts the boards, which are held fast on the table by the clamp.

The gauges are set either on the table or in front. The board is put on the table and held tight by pressure of the foot on the treadle; the knife descending upon the exposed board cuts after the principle of the guillotine blade. Another kind, introduced by Messrs. Richmond, of Kirby Street, Hatton Garden, is made for steam work, and is no doubt one of the best that can be made.

Instead of a knife to descend, a number of circular cutters are made to revolve on two spindles, the one cutter working against the other see woodcut ; but I give Messrs. The machine is very strongly and accurately constructed. It is furnished with an iron table having a planed surface, and is also provided with a self-acting feed gauge. The machine will therefore be found to be a most profitable acquisition to any bookbinding establishment in which large quantities of mill-board are used up.

The boards being cut, square the edge which is to go to the back of the book. The boards are now, if for whole-binding, to be lined on both sides with paper; if for half-binding only on one side. The reason for lining them is to make the boards curve inwards towards the book. The various pastings would cause the board to curve the contrary way if it were not lined.

If the boards are to be lined both sides, paper should be cut double the size of the boards; if only one side, the paper cut a little wider than the boards, so that a portion of the paper may be turned over on to the other side about a quarter of an inch.

The paper is now pasted with not too thick paste, and the board laid on the paper with the cut edge towards the portion to be turned over. It is now taken up with the paper adhering, and laid down on the press with the paper side upwards, and rubbed well down; it is then again turned over and the paper drawn over the other side.

It is advisable to press the boards to make more certain of the paper adhering, remembering always that the paper must be pasted all over very evenly, for it cannot be expected to adhere if it is not pasted properly. When the books are very thick, two boards must be pasted together, not only to get the proper thickness, but for strength, for a made board is always stronger than a single one.

If a board has to be made, a thick and a somewhat thinner board should be fastened together with paste. Paste both boards and put them in the standing press for the night. Great pressure should not be put on at first, but after allowing them to set for a few minutes, pull down the press as tight as possible. When placing made boards to the book, the thinner one should always be next the book.

It may be taken as a general rule that a thinner board when pasted will always draw a thicker one. When boards are lined on one side only it is usual to turn half an inch of the paper over the square or cut edge, and the lined side must be placed next the book.

Many binders line the mill-board all over with paper before cutting; this may save time, but the edge of the board at the joint is liable to be abraised, and the resulting joint uneven. The boards when lined should be laid about or stood up to dry, and when dry, cut to the proper and exact size for the book. As a fact, the black boards now sold are much too new or green to be used direct by the binder, they should be stocked for some months. The requisite width is obtained by extending the compass from the back of the book to the edge of the smallest bolt or fold in the foredge.

It is advisable not to measure less than this point, but to leave a leaf or two in order to show that the book is not cut down. When cut they are to be tested by turning one round and putting them together again; if they are the least out of truth it will be apparent at once. The head or top of the boards is next to be cut by placing a square against the back and marking the head or top with a bodkin or point of a knife.

The boards being quite straight are again put into the press and cut, and when taken out should be again proved by reversing them as before, and if not true they must be recut. The length is now taken from the head of the book to the tail, and in this some judgment must be used. If the book has already been cut the measure must be somewhat larger than the book, allowing only such an amount of paper to be cut off as will make the edge smooth. If, however, the book is to 57 be entirely uncut, the size of the book is measured, and in addition the portion called squares must be added.

When a book has not been cut, the amount that is to be cut off the head will give the head or top square, and the book being measured from the head, another square or projection must be added to it, and the compass set to one of the shortest leaves in the book. Bearing in mind the article on trimming, enough of the book only should be cut to give the edge solidity for either gilding or marbling. A few leaves should always be left not cut with the plough, to show that the book has not been cut down.

These few leaves are called proof , and are always a mark of careful work. About twenty years ago it was the mode to square the foredge of the boards, then lace or draw them in, and to cut the head and tail of the boards and book together, then to turn up and cut the foredge of the book. The boards having been squared, they are to be attached to the book by lacing the ends of the cord through holes made in the board.

The boards are to be laid on the book with their backs in the groove and level with the head; they must then be marked either with a lead pencil or the point of a bodkin exactly in a line with the slips, about half an inch down the board. On a piece of wood the mill-board is placed, and holes are pierced by hammering a short bodkin through on the line made, at a distance from the edge in accordance with the size of the book.

About half an inch away from the back is the right distance for an 58 octavo. The board is then to be turned over, and a second hole made about half an inch away from the first ones.

The boards having been holed, the slips must be scraped, pasted slightly, and tapered or pointed. Draw them tightly through the hole first made and back through the second. Tap them slightly when the board is down to prevent them from slipping and getting loose. When the cords are drawn through, cut the ends close to the board with a knife, and well hammer them down on the knocking-down iron to make the board close on the slips and hold them tight.

The slips should be well and carefully hammered, as any projection will be seen with great distinctness when the book is covered. The hammer must be held perfectly even, for the slips will be cut by the edge of it if used carelessly.

The book is now to be examined, and any little alteration may be made before putting it into the standing press. With all books, a tin should be placed between the mill-board and book, to flatten the slips, and prevent their adherence. The tin is placed right up to the groove, and serves also as a guide for the pressing board.

Pressing boards, the same size as the book, should be put flush with the groove, using the pressing tin as guide, and the book or books placed in the centre of the press directly under the screw, which is to be tightened as much as possible.

In pressing books of various sizes, the largest book must always be put at the bottom of the press, with a block or a few pressing boards between the various sizes, in order to get equal pressure on the whole, and to allow the screw to come exactly on the centre of the books. The backs of the books are now to be pasted, and allowed to stand for a few minutes to soften the glue. Then with a piece of wood or iron, called a cleaning-off stick wood is preferable , the glue is rubbed off, and the backs are well rubbed with a handful of shavings and left to dry.

Leave them as long as possible in the press, and if the volume is 59 rather a thick one a coat of paste or thin glue should be applied to the back. Paste is preferable. If the book is very thick a piece of thin calico may be pasted to the back and allowed to dry, the surplus being taken away afterwards.

In flexible work care must be taken that the cleaning-off stick is not forced too hard against the bands, or the thread being moist will break, or the paper being wet will tear, or the bands may become shifted. The cleaning-off stick may be made of any piece of wood; an old octavo cutting board is as good as anything else, but a good workman will always have one suitable and at hand when required for use. The book is then ready for cutting. In olden times, when our present work-tools did not exist and material aids were scarce, a sharp knife and straight edge formed the only implements used in cutting.

Now we have the plough and cutting machine, which have superseded the knife and straight edge; and the cutting machine is now fast doing away with the plough. There are very few shops at the present moment where a cutting 60 machine is not in use, in fact I may say that, without speaking only of cloth books, for they must always be cut by machinery owing to the price not allowing them to be done otherwise, there are very few books, not even excepting extra books, that have escaped the cutting machine.

The plough running over the press, its left cheek running between two guides fastened on the left cheek of the press. By turning the screw of the plough the right cheek is advanced towards the left; the knife fixed on the right of the plough is advanced, and with the point cuts gradually through the boards or paper secured in the press, as already described in preparing the boards. But with a bolt knife, being fastened to the shoe of the plough, it is necessarily a fixture, and must be worn down by cutting or squaring mill-boards, or such work, before it can be used with the truth necessary for paper.

To cut a book properly it must be quite straight, and the knife must be sharp and perfectly true. Having this in mind, the book may be cut by placing the front board the requisite distance from the head that is to be cut off. A piece of thin mill-board or trindle is put between the hind board and book, so that the knife when through the book may not cut the board. The book is now to be lowered into the cutting press, with the back towards the workman, until the front board is exactly on a level with the press.

The head of the book is now horizontal with the press, and the amount to be cut off exposed above it. Both sides should be looked to, as the book is very liable to get a twist in being put in the press.

When it is quite square the press is to be screwed up tightly and evenly. Each end should be screwed up to exactly the same tightness, for if one end is loose the paper will be jagged or torn instead of being cut cleanly. The book is cut by drawing the plough gently to and fro; each time it is brought towards the workman a slight amount of turn is given to the screw of the plough.

If too much turn is given to the screw, the knife will bite too deeply into the paper and will tear instead of cutting it. If the knife has not been properly sharpened, or has a burr 62 upon its edge, it will be certain to cause ridges on the paper. The top edge being cut, the book is taken out of the press and the tail cut. A mark is made on the top of the hind or back board just double the size of the square, and the board is lowered until the mark is on a level with the cut top.

The book is again put into the press, with the back towards the workman, until the board is flush with the cheek of the press; this will expose above the press the amount to be taken off from the tail, as before described, and the left hand board will be, if put level with the cut top, exactly the same distance above the press as the right band board is below the cut top.

The tail is cut in the same way as the top edge. To cut a book properly requires great care. It will be of great importance to acquire a methodical exactness in working the different branches, cutting especially. Always lay a book down one way and take it up another, and in cutting always work with the back of the book towards you, and cut from you. History of development and progress has seen divergence and convergence across regions both between countries and within the country throughout the history.

The widespread regional disparity is an important economic and political issue. The forces of globalisation are expected to reduce the gap between rich and poor regions thereby reducing the disparities considerably due to overwhelming impetus of convergence forces. Many studies have studied the trends and patterns of regional convergence and divergence.

South Asia has an important place in various regions of the world as it is home to around 24 percent of world population and it is both the most populous and the most densely populated geographical region in the world.

In recent periods South Asia has been second largest growing region of the world but it is home to the largest number of people living amid poverty with widespread under-nutrition and other health related degradations. The present paper analysed inter-country disparities in the south Asian countries.

The aim is to study the trends in various indicators of social and economic development with a view to identify the possible impacts of these divergences and convergences.

Theoretically, a divergence in poverty and poor social outcomes would indicate that poor regions are trapped in low-level equilibrium traps. The paper analyses data obtained from World Bank data indicators and estimated convergence and divergence trends in various indicators.

Chandra Gunawardena. Kannan Navaneetham. South Asia is experiencing rapid demographic changes leading to age structural transitions. This paper examines the process of age structural transitions in South Asia and its potential for development, thereby achieving the Millennium Development Goals.

Demographic dividend accruing from the age structural transition is not a given. Age structural transition will give an opportunity and the policy makers should take advantage of it to formulate their social and economic policies in tune to it. Among the south Asian countries, India has an added advantage for its regional differentials in the timing and pacing of age structural transitions which may provide an opportunity that other comparable countries have not had.

With rapid reduction in fertility, Bangladesh has greater potential to acquire from first demographic dividend. The other countries Nepal and Pakistan have just enter Preet Rustagi. Log in with Facebook Log in with Google.

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Usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup. Human Development in South Asia: A Ten-year Review

 
Duplicate your basic resume for each new job. You want to customize it with USAJobs resume keywords and phrases for every job application you send. You can use the USAJobs Resume Missing: leatherup. The USAJOBS Resume Builder was designed to ensure that your resume includes the standard information needed. The Resume Builder is an available tool when you login to your USAJOBS account. Review the Appointment Eligibility Criteria: The eligibility section of the application process is designed to allow you to choose how you wish to be. 4th Edition of the Federal Resume Guidebook, Strategies for Writing a Winning Federal Electronic Resume, KSA’s and Essays. Almost all federal agencies now require you to use online resume builders to submit your resume. This book shows you how to use online resume builders, including USAJOBS, Quickhire, AvueCentral, and Resumix.

 

Usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup

 
Jul 12,  · This is not the case. A federal resume requires a lot more detailed information than a commercial resume. Below is a list of all of the information that is required for a federal resume. If you were to use the Resume Builder on the USAJobs website, you would be prompted to fill in this information. WORK EXPERIENCE —————. How to build a resume using the resume builder app at Sign into your USAJOBS account. Go to your Documents. Make sure you’re in the Resumes section and select the Upload or build resume button. Click Build resume. Name your new resume and click Next. Click Add Work Experience, enter the required information and click Save Work. Open up your Word document or other word processing tool. Select the File tab at the top. Go to the Save As option. Choose to save it as a Plain Text .txt) file. Open the new file and ensure the text appears in an acceptable format. Copy and paste your resume text into the resume builder. To edit your USAJOBS resume-builder resume.

 
 

Usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup.USAJobs Resume Builder Details

 
 

By William Crookes, F. Powell, B. Chance Bros. Harris, Assoc. By Dr. Knecht, Ph. The first edition of this book was written for the use of amateurs, but I found that amongst the members of the lewtherup my little volume had a large sale, and in a short time the edition became exhausted.

Repeated applications for the book have induced me to issue this second edition. I have adhered to the arrangement of builver first, but a great deal of fresh matter has been added, which I trust will be found useful.

Should any of my fellow-workmen find anything new to them I shall be satisfied, knowing that I have done my duty in spreading such knowledge as may contribute towards the advancement of the beautiful art of bookbinding. I have to record my obligations to those gentlemen who have assisted me by courteously describing the various machines of their invention with which the book is illustrated. The object, however, of usajobs.gov resume builderall usaa – usajobs.gov resume builderall usaa часто this work with engravings of machines is simply to recognize the fact that books are bound by machinery.

To a mechanical worker must be left the task of describing the processes used in this method. Bookbinding carries us back to the time when leaden tablets with inscribed hieroglyphics were fastened together with rings, which formed what to us would be the binding of the volumes.

We might go even still further back, when tiles of baked clay with cuneiform characters were incased one within the other, so that if the cover of one were broken or otherwise damaged there still remained another, and yet another covering; by which care history has been handed down from generation to generation. The binding in the former would consist of the rings which bound the leaden tablets together, and in the latter, the simple covering formed the binding which preserved the contents.

We must pass on from these, and make another pause, when vellum strips were attached together in one continuous usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup with a roller at each end. The reader unrolled the one, and rolled the other as he perused the work.

Books, prized either for their rarity, sacred character, or costliness, would be kept in a round box or case, so that the appearance of a library in Ancient Jerusalem would seem to us as if it were a collection of canisters. The next step was the моему federal agencies not on usajobs login 365 days весьма of separate leaves together, thus making a back, and covering the whole as a protection in a most simple form; the only object being to keep the several leaves ссылка на продолжение connected sequence.

I believe the most ancient form of books formed of usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup leaves, will be found in the sacred books buioder Ceylon which were formed of palm leaves, written on with a metal style, and the binding was merely a silken string tied through one end so loosely as to admit of each leaf being laid down flat when turned over. When the mode of preserving MS. These usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup were not kept bhilder their edges, but were laid down flat on the shelves, and had small cedar tablets hanging from them upon which their titles were inscribed.

The ordinary books for general use were only fastened strongly at the back, with wooden boards for the sides, and simply посетить страницу источник piece of leather up the back. They are of usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup, gold, silver or copper gilt, and sometimes they are enriched with precious stones.

The monks, during this century, took advantage of the immense thickness of the wooden boards and frequently hollowed them out to secrete their relics in the cavities.

Bookbinding was then confined entirely to the monks who were usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup literati of the period. Then the art was neglected for some centuries, owing to the plunder and pillage that overran Europe, and books were destroyed to get at the jewels that were too,ing to be hidden ссылка the different parts of the covering, so that few now remain to show how bookbinding was then accomplished and to what extent.

We must now pass on to the middle ages, when samples of binding were brought from the East by the crusaders, and these may well be prized by their owners for their delicacy of finish. The monks, who still held the Art suajobs Bookbinding in their hands, improved upon these Eastern specimens. Each one devoted himself to a different branch: one planed the oaken boards to a proper size, another stretched and coloured the usajobz and the work was thus divided into branches, as it is now.

The task was one of great difficulty, seeing how rude were the implements then in use. The art of printing gave new life to our trade, and, during the fifteenth century bookbinding made great progress on account resums the greater facility and cheapness with which books were produced.

The printer was then his own binder; but as books increased in number, bookbinding became a separate art-trade of itself. This was a step decidedly in the toolkng direction. The art improved so much, that in the sixteenth century some of the finest samples of bookbinding were executed.

Morocco having been introduced, and fine delicate tools cut, the art was encouraged by great families, who, liking the Venetian patterns, had their books bound in that style. The annexed woodcut will give a fair idea of a Venetian tool.

During this period the French had bookbinding almost entirely in their hands, and Mons. Grolier, адрес loved the art, had his books bound under his own supervision in the most costly manner.

His designs consisted of bold gold lines arranged geometrically with great accuracy, crossing one another and intermixed with small leaves or sprays. These were in outlines shaded or filled up with closely worked cross lines. Not, however, satisfied with these simple traceries, he embellished them still more by staining or painting them black, green, red, and even with silver, so that they formed bands interlacing each other in a most graceful manner.

Opposite is a centre block of Grolier. It will be seen how these lines entwine, and how the small tools are shaded with lines. If the reader has had the good fortune to see one of these specimens, usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup he not wondered at usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup taste displayed? To the French must certainly be given the honour of bringing the art to usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup rezume perfection.

Francis I. Not only was the exterior elaborate in ornament, but the edges were gilded and tooled; and even painted. We must wonder at the excellence of the materials and the careful workmanship which has preserved usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup bindings, even to the colour of the leather, in perfect condition to the present day. The work of Maioli may be distinctly traced by the bold simplicity and purity of his designs; and usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup especially by the broader gold lines which margin the coloured bands of geometric and arabesque ornamentation.

All books, it must be understood, were not bound bullder so costly a manner, for we find pigskin, vellum builxer calf usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup use.

The latter was especially preferred usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup account of its peculiar softness, smooth surface, and great aptitude for receiving impressions of жмите сюда or blind tooling. It was only towards the latter part of the sixteenth century that the English binders began to employ delicate or fine tooling.

During the seventeenth century the names of Du Sueil and Le Gascon were known for the delicacy and extreme minuteness of their finishing. Not disdaining the bindings of the Italian school, toolinb took ссылка them new ideas; for whilst the Grolier bindings were bold, the Du Sueil and Le Gascon more resembled fine lace work of intricate design, with harmonizing flowers and other objects, from which we may obtain a great variety of artistic character.

During this period embroidered velvet was much in gooling. Then a change took place and a style was adopted which by some people would be preferred to the gorgeous bindings of the sixteenth century.

The sides were finished quite plainly with only a line round the edge of the boards and in some instances not even that with a coat of arms or some badge in the centre. Towards the end of the seventeenth century bookbinding began to improve, particularly with regard to forwarding. The joints were true and square, and the back was made to open more freely. In the gooling century the names usajovs Derome, Roger Payne, and others are prominent as masters of the craft, and the Harleian style was usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup.

The plate facing may be fairly estimated as a good specimen of Derome. Notice the extreme simplicity and yet the symmetry of the design; its characteristic feature being the boldness usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup the corners and the gradual diminishing of the scroll work as it nears the canada day vancouver island’s covid 1970 chevelle – canada day vancouver island’s covid 1970 che of the panel. Morocco and calf were the leathers used for this binding.

Hand coloured calf was at this period at its height, and the Cambridge calf may be named as a pattern of one of the various styles, and one that нажмите для деталей approved of by many at the present day—the calf was sprinkled all over, save a square panel left uncoloured in the centre of the boards.

The Harleian style took its name from Harley, Earl of Oxford. It was red morocco with a broad tooled border and centre panels. We have the names of various masters who pushed the art forward to very great excellence during this century. Baumgarten and Benedict, two Germans of considerable note in London; Mackinly, from whose house also fine work was sent out, and by whom good workmen were educated whose specimens almost equal the work of their master.

There were two other Germans, Kalthoeber and Staggemeier, each having his own peculiar style. Kalthoeber is credited with having usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup introduced painting on the edges. This I must dispute, as it was done in the sixteenth century.

To him, however, must certainly be given the credit of having discovered the secret, if ever lost, and renewing it on his best work. We must now pass on to Roger Payne, that unfortunate and erring fooling but clever workman, who lived during the latter part of the eighteenth century. His usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup may be seen from the woodcut.

He generally used small tools, and by combining them formed a variety of beautiful designs. He cut most of these tools himself, either because he could not find a tool cutter of sufficient skill, or that he found it difficult to pay узнать больше cost. We are told by anecdote, that he drank much and lived recklessly; but notwithstanding usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup his irregular habits, his name ought to be usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup for the work he executed.

His backs were firm, and his forwarding excellent; and he introduced a class of finishing that was always in accordance with the character or subject of the book. His only fault was the peculiar coloured paper with which he made his end papers. Coloured or fancy calf has now taken the place of the hand-coloured. Coloured cloth has come so much into use, that this branch of the trade alone monopolizes nearly three-fourths of the workmen and females employed in bookbinding.

Many other substitutes for leather have been introduced, and a number of imitations of morocco and calf are in the market; this, with the use of machinery, has made so great a revolution in the trade, that it is now divided into two distinct branches—cloth work and extra work. I have endeavoured in the foregoing remarks to raise the emulation of my fellow craftsmen by naming the most famous artists of past days; men whose works are most worthy of study and imitation.

I have refrained from any notice or criticism of the work of my contemporaries; but I may venture to assure the lover of good bookbinding that as good and sound work, and as careful finish, may be obtained in a first-rate house in London as in any city in the world. In the succeeding chapters, I will endeavour in as plain and simple a way as I can to usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup instructions to the unskilled workman how to bind a book. We commence with folding.

It is generally the first thing the binder has to do with a book. The sheets are either supplied by the publisher or printer mostly the printer ; should the amateur wish to have his books in sheets, he may generally get them by asking his bookseller for them. It is necessary that they be carefully folded, for unless they are perfectly even, it is impossible that the margins the blank space round вот ссылка print can be uniform when the book is cut. Where the margin is small, as in very small prayer books, a very great risk of cutting into the print usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup incurred; besides, it is rather annoying to see a book which rsume the folio or paging on one leaf nearly at the top, and on the next, the print touching the bottom; to remedy such an buildfr, the printer having done his duty by placing his margins quite true, it remains with the binder to perfect and bring the sheet into proper form by leathegup.

The best bound book may be spoilt by toolihg the sheets badly folded, and the binder is perfectly justified in rejecting any sheets that may be badly printed, that is, not in register.

The sheets are laid upon a table with the signatures the letters or numbers that are at the foot of the first usajjobs of each sheet when folded facing downwards on the left hand side. A folding-stick is held in lwatherup right hand, and the sheet is brought over from right to left, the folios being carefully placed together; if the paper is held up to the light, and is not too thick, it can be easily seen through.

Holding the two together and laying them on the table the folder is drawn across the sheet, creasing the centre; then, holding the sheet down with the folder on the line usajobs government jobs federal jobs pathways credit repairpal cost be creased, the top usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup is brought over and downwards till the folios or the bottom of the letterpress or print is again even.

The usajobs resume builder tooling leatherup is then drawn across, and so by bringing each folio together the sheet is completed. The process is extremely simple. The octavo sheet is generally folded into 4 folds, thus giving 8 leaves or usajkbs pages; a quarto, into 2, giving 4 leaves or 8 pages, and the sheets properly folded, will have their signatures outside at the foot of the first page.