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Critical theory does more than describe the unseen mechanisms that account for observable reality; it also critiques conditions and implies a plan of change.

Neuman , p. A heuristic approach is used in this study to make explicit the researcher’s own perspectives and her integral role in the development of the Trainee Teacher Program Acknowledgement of the researcher’s voice as teacher, administrator, post graduate student as legitimate knowledge, fits within new and expanded notions of what constitutes valid knowledge in public discourses Gitlin, Peck, Aposhian, Hadley and Porter, , para.

As well as explaining and analysing the factors that impact on the EAs’ engagement with the ITE course, this research seeks to draw data from the international literature on non-mainstream education and ITE courses elsewhere. This will help to inform the development of a set of recommendations for ITE courses to best suit the needs of non- mainstream students.

This approach is in keeping with the grounded methodology used and aspects of critical theory that, according to Neuman , p. Discourse theory is used to understand and contextualise these personal accounts within the broader colonialist and neo-colonialist socio-political environment in which this study is set.

These theories and techniques are outlined below. As the name suggests ‘Grounded’ methodology is inductive rather than deductive as theory is meant to emerge from the data as it is gathered in the field. The choice of this approach was very much in keeping with the central aim of the research, which was to find out from the participants’ point of view what factors were most significant to them. According to Glaser and Strauss, the grounded researcher should enter the field only with a hunch.

He or she goes into the field alert to the sort of factors that may be significant but open to those that may not have been anticipated Glaser and Strauss, A variety of research strategies are then used to gather data that closely reflect what is going on in the field.

These generally, but not exclusively, include qualitative methods such as open-ended interviews and participant observation. As themes or factors begin to emerge from interviews and observations, the researcher then works with the participants to define and categorise the data and to develop an understanding of possible relationships between the factors. From this process the researcher is then able to produce hypotheses about the phenomenon under study.

Thus, a theory develops from the data gathered. Emphasis is placed on ensuring that the theory fits the data and reflects what is going on, from the point of view of the participants in the study Kellehear, , p. To this end, a Grounded Theory approach was used in this research in order to remain as much as possible faithful to the evidence.

Another reason for using a Grounded approach was to minimise the impact of the researcher’s cultural frame of reference. To enter the field with a preconceived and therefore limited set of factors to be tested creates the potential for the researcher to miss what may be the most crucial or significant factors impacting on the phenomenon. These factors may be completely outside the visionary landscape of the researcher.

As Kellehear , p. In keeping with the Grounded approach a literature review of other experiences and models was not conducted until the end of the study. Once again this was in order to allow factors to emerge naturally in the field rather than being imposed based on the researcher’s academically derived “knowledge”.

Within the broad framework of Grounded Theory, a Case Study approach was used in this research. This approach is also in keeping with the fundamental aims and philosophical principles of this research.

One common factor is that they all have a focus on a particular situation or “case”, or what Burns , p. Burns , p. Most, however, use qualitative methods. Burns , pp. Merriam , p 37 also points out that whilst some case study advocates eg Burns and Yin, , pp. This according to Merriam , p37 : Allows the researcher to adapt to unforeseen events or information and change direction in the pursuit of meaning. Despite their apparent lack of design protocols, some researchers have the view that case studies are particularly appropriate for certain types of research.

Merriam , p. Their general characteristics according to Merriam , p. Burns also points to the contextualised, real and holistic nature of case studies saying that: The case study is the preferred strategy when In brief it allows an investigation to retain the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real events Burns, p.

Again, within the apparent portmanteau of approaches, researchers like Merriam , pp. Evaluative case studies seek to ‘weigh’ the data collected from the case to produce a judgement that can be used to inform decision-making.

Stenhouse, in Bassey, , p. In ‘evaluative’ case studies, according to Stenhouse, one or more cases is studied in depth with the purpose of providing educational actors or decision makers administrators, teachers, parents, pupils, etc.

Stake adds to a definition of case studies by saying that they provide a particular type of knowledge not necessarily found in other types of research: The best use for a case study is ‘adding to existing experience and humanistic understanding’ their epistemological advantage is on the basis of their ‘naturalistic generalization’ Stake, , p. Walton in Neuman, , p.

Thus, to summarise the literature on case studies, it can be said that they are, at the very least, the study of a specific situation or ‘bounded system’ in a real, contextualized, inductive and holistic way.

Whilst methods and purposes might vary significantly, the knowledge derived from such rich information is useful because, as Stake suggests, case studies provide: Valid portrayals, a better base for personal understanding of what is going on, and solid grounds for considering action , p. A case study is an ideal framework to gather and analyse data for this research, given its ‘grounded theory’ and inductive assumptions, which emphasise the need to develop a holistic view and be flexible enough to accommodate whatever factors may emerge and to use whatever methods are most appropriate within the context.

The features of case studies that make them particularly appropriate for this type of research, therefore, include their flexibility and their emphasis on gathering data in an inductive and holistic 22 way.

Case studies are also able to inform policy based on an in depth understanding of what actually is going on in the field from the participants’ perspective. This is of particular importance when the program is located within an intercultural context.

The data gathered in this research using a Grounded, Case Study approach has been analysed using principles and tools drawn from a combination of Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory approach and James Gees’ interpretation of a Discourse approach. These approaches and the reasons for their use are outlined below.

Psychologist, Kurt Lewin first developed his Field Theory approach to data collection and analysis in the s. Within this approach, he describes all forms of human behaviour such as “learning” and “achieving” as “a change of state” in a given time.

For example, the act of “learning”, in this case “learning to be a teacher”, can be seen as a shift from one psychological, emotional, moral and even material state to another. Lewin was interested in discovering what forces impacted on the changed state either positively or negatively and used mathematical symbols to understand, describe and explain these forces.

The use of mathematical symbols to describe these forces was in keeping with one of the main principles guiding Lewin’s work, which was the need for social scientists to develop more scientific methods to conceptualise data using what he termed the “elements of construction” of any given concept Cartwright in Lewin, , p.

Lewin was especially keen to develop a valid way to break down such “common use” concepts as “learning”, “motivation”, “frustration” or “hope” into their “elements of construction” so as to allow their properties to be better scrutinised and understood.

It was important from Lewin’s perspective, that social scientists included all the factors that impacted on a “changed state”. These include those that may be difficult to conceptualise and those that the individual or group may not even be conscious of. Lewin used the term “fields” or “life space” to represent all the factors that have existence for the individual or group whether consciously or not and which have demonstrable effect on any “change of state”.

A major advantage of using Lewin’s approach is that he emphasised the need for researchers to more carefully conceptualise complex aspects of human behaviour. Within the historical context in which he worked these were often left outside of analysis because they were deemed, within the dominant research paradigms of the time, to be unscientific or just too difficult to pin down.

Lewin p. Using methods drawn from the physical sciences, field theorists take an aspect of human behaviour and try to investigate its “elements of construction”, or what it is made up of. Alternatively, it may lead to “an increase in productivity” or to “a lack of productivity”. In order to fully understand both the causes of a complex human emotion and its effects on human behaviour, Lewin argues that it is necessary to examine in detail, the type of emotion and the setting in which it takes place Lewin , p.

In this way, Field Theory places high demands on conceptualisation because it demands to know what terms mean in the 24 context in which they exist. In this way Lewin’s theory is a precursor to later socio- cultural and Discourse theories that also called into question the deeper and contextualised meanings that lay beneath such concepts.

Using mathematical symbols, Lewin tried to represent the individual “elements of construction” that make up a particular aspect of human behaviour. These elements can be classified as either “Driving” forces or “Restraining” forces. If both are equal then the movement toward the goal may remain in equilibrium. If the aim of the research is to illuminate ways to move the individual or group towards a particular goal, then breaking the factors down to their “elements of construction” and determining their relative “Driving” or “Restraining” effects can aid in this process.

As well as attempting to better conceptualise complex aspects of human behaviour by breaking them down into their “elements of construction”, Lewin also believed that “agents of change” were multiple and interdependent. Using a holistic approach he argued that many events and processes must be included as “agents of change” when examining causes for human behaviour.

These included the physical environment, the economic, legal and political spheres as well as the individual’s needs, goals and cognitive structure. All these aspects were part of what Lewin called the “field” or the “life space” of the individual that must be considered as determinants in the person’s changed state.

Lewin also adopted a Gestalt approach, arguing that the field which influences a person can only properly be described in the way in which it exists for that person at that time, that is, from their point of view. In response to critics of this approach, who argued it was fraught with subjectivity, Lewin claimed that his approach was more objective than others being promoted at the time.

In fact he believed that: 25 To describe a situation ‘objectively’ in psychology actually means to describe it as a totality of those facts and only those facts that make up the field of the individual – to substitute that world of the individual for the world of the teacher, of the physicist, or anyone else – this is to be not objective but wrong. Lewin, , p. Field Theory is consistent with the theoretical assumptions that guide this work.

These include, firstly, that a researcher’s beliefs impact on the selection of data, on analysis, and therefore on the findings of any research. Analytical rigour is a way to formalise this process of conceptualisation to ensure that the researcher’s way of interpreting and understanding events that occur in the field are not imposed upon the concepts being investigated. Secondly, in Field Theory, factors impacting on a phenomenon are considered to be interrelated and therefore cannot be seen in isolation from each other.

Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory approach Lewin, is used in this research as it provides a rigorous methodology to examine how forces that create change can be discovered, researched, analysed and described.

Lewin’s Field Theory is relevant to this research because it is an approach that aids in the conceptualisation of data by breaking “common use” terms down into their “elements of construction”. This is in keeping with a socio-cultural approach that recognises that so-called “common use” understandings may be fraught with socio-culturally determined meanings.

This level of conceptualisation is important, especially within a context that is outside the researcher’s usual frame of reference, in order to more accurately represent the meanings of such terms for the participants.

The approach also provides analytical tools to aid in the interpretation and understanding of factors that cause a “change of state” in human behaviour – in this case from that of Education Assistant to Teacher. By using Lewin’s approach, those factors which emerge from the data which have a positive or “Driving” impact on the goal becoming a teacher can be distinguished from those that have a negative or 26 “Restraining” impact.

The relative strength of each “Driving” or “Restraining” force can then be visualised and better understood using Lewin’s conceptualising techniques. Importantly, too, it provides yet another way of minimising the impact of the researcher’s worldview and academic discourse on the data collection and analysis process. In order to do so it borrows from the ideas of Strauss , Bourdieu and Passeron and in particular James Gee Using this theoretical framework and analytical approach the ITE program under examination is viewed as a kind of “social text”.

In this case “social texts” refer to written and spoken texts as well as those that are “symbolically articulated” Ka Tat Tsang, , section 2, para.

As Ka Tat Tsang , section 2, para. A discourse analysis is used to develop a deeper understanding of the social texts being used by the EAs and, in particular, the way that these texts relate to both their individual experiences and personalities and to the neo-colonialist socio-cultural context in which they all reside.

This interlocking of personal and the socio-cultural is central to discourse theory which posits that an individual’s identity or sense of self is not simply reliant on their own 27 nature or inner consciousness but is inexorably connected to the external social and physical world. Strauss, for example, claims that: Identities imply not merely personal histories but also social histories If you wish to understand persons, their development and their relations with significant others, you must be prepared to view them as embedded in social context.

Strauss, In Bufton, , p. Importantly, Bourdieu and others have described this interplay of the personal and the social world as a dialectical process in which social situations are at once imposed upon individuals but at the same time, able to be created by individuals through the choices they make. This implies that, whilst individuals are constrained by the physical world or the social circumstances in which they find themselves such as their social class, ethnicity, gender or relative economic or political status in society , it is possible to change these circumstances through reflexivity and action.

Importantly, Bourdieu also argues that while habitus or the interplay between the individual and the social differs between individuals depending on their personality and life experiences, shared experiences of the social world that people may have because of their social positioning class, gender, ethnicity, age tend to produce a collective habitus.

This means that people who share external socio-cultural experiences are likely to have similar personal experiences, dispositions and ways of acting, behaving and thinking in and about the world.

According to Bourdieu, it is these shared experiences 28 and understandings that underpin cultural differences between social classes and other groups: The habitus could be considered as a subjective but not individual system of internalised structures, schemes of perception, conception and action common to all members of the same group or class and constituting the precondition for all objectification and apperception Bourdieu and Passeron, p.

In Bufton, , section 2, para. Both an individual and a collective habitus reveals itself, according to Bourdieu, in a number of external features including such obvious traits as the way people speak, walk, stand, sit and use facial expressions Bourdieu , pp. In Bufton, Through an analysis of these attributes, which are primarily acquired in childhood from primary caregivers, Bourdieu maintains that a “host of social meanings and values” can be gained: Strictly biological differences are underlined and symbolically accentuated by differences in bearing, differences in gesture, posture and behaviour which express a whole relationship to the social world.

Bourdieu, , p. Further to this, Bourdieu argues that language is a significant indicator of the social groups to which a person belongs. He claims that language: betrays, in the very utterance, a relation to language which is common to a whole category of speakers because it is the product of the social conditions of the acquisition and use of language.

Bourdieu and Passeron, , p. As a precursor to this Fanon , p. Like Bourdieu and Fanon before him, James Gee uses Discourse but with a capital D theory and analysis techniques to investigate and explain how language works both to scaffold human activities and affiliations and to maintain social identities within social groups , p. Also, like Fanon and Bourdieu, Gee recognises that there is more 29 to language than oral and written words. For Gee language is made up of what he refers to as “other stuff” which includes body language, gestures, actions, symbols, tools, technologies, values, attitudes, beliefs and emotions Gee, , p.

These ways of communicating and of acting are often, according to Gee, supported by a range of props, which can include such material and non-material identifiers as accents, writing styles, dress standards, building designs or an assortment of possessions that can be used to signal the values and beliefs of an individual or group. All these props go towards creating an image that signals membership of a particular group and which can be recognised both by members of the groups and those outside it.

Gee uses a capital D for Discourse to signal that he is referring to both words and all this “other stuff” that language involves. Gee’s version of Discourse theory also makes the assumption, like Bourdieu, that people who are from or belong to different socio-cultural or socio-economic groups have certain shared values and ways of seeing, acting, thinking and behaving in the world Gee, , p.

These Gee refers to as Discourses with a capital D as they include language and all the “other stuff” that is referred to earlier.

A Discourse may belong to a particular cultural or ethnic group, a socio-economic group, a social or professional group or an institution. Each has its own particular ways of talking, writing, acting, and thinking about the world. Importantly Gee argues that through Discourse analysis the beliefs and values and Conversations that underpin these surface ways of interacting can be revealed.

Whilst Gee acknowledges that people belong to, and move in and out of, multiple Discourse groups such as their professional group when they are at work and their social group on the week-end, there are certain Discourses which play a more significant role in the way people think and act. These are often the ones that are learned as children, from their immediate care-givers Gee, In this, often rather 30 closed-environment, children learn what the family considers to be appropriate forms of communication, ways to dress, manners and importantly values and beliefs.

Gradually, as they move out of their family or home environment they encounter other Discourses that are practiced in the wider community of school, work and social life.

These new Discourses and the Conversations they carry may be similar to or in conflict with those learned within the home and they also may hold a different amount of power and status within a community.

Central to the type of Discourse theory posited by Strauss, Bourdieu and Gee is the notion that Discourses are not neutral or equal and that certain Discourses have the potential to yield wealth, status and power to their members at the expense of others and are therefore inherently political. It is also the case, according to Gee, that entry into certain Discourses is more difficult for some individuals than others. This is particularly the case where the patterns of talking, acting, thinking and valuing differ markedly or, in some cases, are in conflict with those learned in the home or within the Discourses a person has been exposed to.

This may include such things as sitting at a desk, listening without interrupting, raising a hand to ask a question or, as in constructivist and inquiry based pedagogies, working collaboratively, problem solving, questioning or taking risks. For some individuals or social groups such behaviours are very much in tune with patterns of behaviour learned in the home where everything, including the physical appearance of the classroom and the teacher, has a sense of familiarity to them.

This is the case both for 31 young children entering school for the first time and for some adults entering Higher Education Institutions. Scollon and Scollen in Gee, , p. The Western essayist tradition requires that the writers perform a major show of self-display, which goes against Athabaskan social mores. In order to be successful within the prevailing Western school-based Discourse, children from dissimilar backgrounds must both learn and be willing, or motivated, to accept a very different set of ‘rules of engagement’ than those they have grown up with.

The dissonance between the Discourses of some groups and those espoused and used in schools has also been highlighted in the work of Nieto, , Spindler in Johnson, , Beth, , and Heath in Nieto, Discourse theory and analysis techniques are used to highlight the details of language and “other stuff” that make up particular Discourses in society and to show how they differ from other possible ways of speaking, thinking and behaving.

More importantly, they are used to expose what lies beneath these Discourses by asking what sorts of values and beliefs about the world these details of language both represent and reinforce and how this impacts on the distribution of wealth and power in a society. This notion that Discourses can be, and generally are, used to serve political interests i. According to this theory, not all Discourses have equal status and power and not all people have equal access to all Discourses, particularly the most powerful ones.

People who belong to, or are accepted into, a Dominant Discourse have access to greater socio-economic and cultural resources including wealth, status and education. Big ‘C’ Conversations are for Gee the sorts of long running and important themes or topics, which are considered appropriately discussable, sayable or meaning-able for a given group at a particular time Gee, p. This might be, for example, what it is considered appropriate to say, do and even think about women’s place in society, child-rearing practices, what and how teachers should teach and even what a teacher should look and sound like.

As carriers of Conversations, Discourses have the power to influence attitudes and values that permeate a society. Examples of Conversations that are relevant in this research, and which are explored using Discourse theory and analysis, are those of colonialism, neo-colonialism, Confucianism, Malay Islam as well as those associated with gender and age and their interface with the Discourse of Western education and in particular those represented in the ITE program associated with this study.

It assumes, for example, that the EAs in this study, who are Chinese or Malay, come from a marginal Discourse within the Australian educational landscape and are seeking access to a more dominant Discourse, that of being a teacher.

To get there, they have to learn and be accepted into the Discourse of Academe, which is embedded in the HEI’s ITE program, and the Discourse of Teacher that is embedded in the school in which they work. They have to at first gain access and then, perhaps more importantly, learn to use the communication patterns and the identity and value systems of a student teacher, established by the HEI. At the same time, they have to 33 learn the Discourse patterns that are expected of a classroom teacher within the unique context of Christmas Island DHS.

Gee likens this process of taking on the multiple aspects of an identity like ‘being a teacher’, with its coordinated pattern of words, deeds, values, beliefs, symbols, tools, objects, times and places, as learning to dance the dance.

These issues of identity formation, particularly when framed within a neo-colonial context, are taken up in the following chapters.

Fanon , p. The colonized is elevated above his jungle status in proportion to the adoption of the mother country’s cultural standards. The specific way in which the EAs in this case study were expected to take on the identity of student and teacher within the neo-colonialist context of the study are explored in the following chapters.

The extent to which a Discourse is flexible and accessible enough to allow people from different Discourses into it, is a measure of its actual rather than rhetorical inclusivity.

One of the purposes for using Discourse theory and analysis in this research is to gain a better understanding of the types of Conversations that are 34 informing the Discourses of Academe and of the teaching profession and how these are impacting on the engagement of people from non-mainstream Discourses.

Discourse analysis, therefore, provides a tool for analysing the communicative patterns of a Discourse in order to reveal its hidden rules and its underlying values and assumptions. This will provide crucial information that needs to be included in any program aimed at enabling Education Assistants to shift from a marginalised Discourse to a more dominant one. Given that one of the aims of this research is to provide recommendations for the modification of ITE programs in order to make them more socially just and accessible to people from non-mainstream backgrounds, Gee’s model of analysis is appropriate and useful in this study.

In line with this, Craig defines heuriskin as ‘I find’, which reflects a unique feature of heuristic inquiry – the legitimisation of the experiences, personal insights and reflections of the researcher in Patton, , p. Even more than other forms of qualitative study, heuristics places great emphasis on the importance of the researcher’s personal knowledge and what Polanyi describes as “indwelling and tacit knowing” in Patton, , p. Through the course of an investigation, a researcher using this form of inquiry aims to combine his or her personal experiences and knowledge with those of the participants in the study.

Douglas and Moustakas , p. With their shared experiences of the phenomenon, the researcher and participants take part in a “creative synthesis” of the researcher’s tacit understandings and the participants’ personal experiences Patton, , p. Specific methodological strategies have been used in this research to minimize the impact of the researcher’s cultural perspectives on the data analysis.

In order to achieve the aim of understanding the phenomenon primarily from the viewpoint of the participants, the impact of the researcher, through her various roles, needs to be made explicit. This is partly because the research techniques used in this study depend upon the skill of the researcher to know, understand and get inside the setting.

The researcher’s personal knowledge, sensitivity and understandings, gained through extensive work in the field, are recognised as being a significant and valuable part of the data collection and analysis process.

The actions, thoughts and feelings of the researcher as she played out these various roles need to be acknowledged and analysed as they form a critical component of the outcomes of the program.

According to Douglas and Moustakas in Patton, , p. Through exhaustive self-search, dialogues with others, and creative depictions of experience, a comprehensive knowledge is generated, beginning as a series of subjective understandings and developing into a systematic and definitive exposition. Thus, the rigour of heuristic inquiry comes from systematic observation of the dialogue and actions of both the researcher and the participants.

The researcher’s various and 36 significant roles in the development of the program under study are described and analysed in Chapter 7. The intention is to both describe the varied techniques used to gather and analyse the rich data and to explain why these techniques are appropriate in this context.

Open-ended interviews provided an opportunity for the participants to speak about issues in their own way, whilst written journals enabled them to use the more private and solitary written form of language, to present their ideas and opinions.

It also enabled her to include data on expressive movements and other forms of non-verbal language behavior Gee’s “other stuff” that underlie, and can help in gaining a better understanding of the meaning of the verbal behaviour.

It was also necessary to use culturally 3 Samples of these are included in the appendices. Given their non-mainstream backgrounds in terms of their ethnicity, age and previous educational experiences, they provided a good example of the type of student for whom current systemic government and HEI cultural diversity policies were being trialed and implemented.

Other participants such as mentors, cooperating teachers and school administrators were not selected or ‘ pre-determined’ but were naturally included if and when they became significant in the study. As a result, there was what Glaser and Strauss would describe as, “an on going inclusion of individuals and groups” Glaser and Strauss, , p.

Initial questions, posed through both open ended interviews and reflective journal writing tasks, focused on the background events leading up to the Education Assistants’ decision to enrol in an ITE program at an Australian HEI. This was in keeping with one of the principles guiding the research – that people’s life experiences significantly impact on the way they think and act.

People, who were identified either by the participants or through direct observations, as having played a role in the EAs’ decision to retrain were also interviewed. Regular 38 field notes were made as events unfolded in relation to their course, their home life, their workloads and their struggles for study leave and other forms of support. Very early on in the research initial hunches were re-organised and re-prioritised. As expected, issues soon emerged that had not been considered significant by the researcher.

In this way a theory began to develop that was intimately linked to the data and the participants’ worldviews and the researcher’s personal insights. From field notes, interview transcripts and written journals, conceptual categories were generated to answer the initial research question – What factors have impacted and continue to impact on the ability of the Education Assistants to engage with a mainstream Initial Teacher Education program?

Conceptual categories, or theoretical abstractions about what was going on, such as ‘mentor support’, ‘self esteem’, ‘family attitudes’, ‘colonial attitudes’, ‘health’, ‘ESL learning’, soon began to emerge from the data.

As more data were collected these were used either as further evidence to validate an already existing conceptual category, or to form the basis of a new conceptual category. Once a category had been established, its properties were then developed. The properties of a category were simply a further abstraction of a category. For example, the category ‘mentors’ may have properties such as formal support, informal support, forms of payment and so on.

It is important to note that according to Glaser and Strauss , p. They are dependent on the researcher’s insight and perceptions and are only validated by the evidence that emerges to support them and by the extent to which they are rendered meaningful and legitimate by the participants.

With increasing levels of abstraction, categories may become related and this interrelatedness becomes the core of the emerging model and theory. An important principle in emergent theory is the need to be constantly alert to emerging categories that might develop theory. In keeping with the underlying principles of this 39 method, theory should not be established too quickly and data should not be gathered to justify it. Through the process of data collection and analysis to develop categories, often multiple hypotheses emerge and are pursued simultaneously.

At other times, suddenly and for an extended period of time, a range of new issues may emerge to take precedence over others. In this way, in a naturally occurring context, theory development is a continuous process. According to Glaser and Strauss , p. The most important of these is that it avoids data selection being made to fit preconceived and perhaps culturally biased and inadequate or irrelevant categories.

This means that emergent categories are more likely to fit the data especially in cross-cultural settings. Categories can more easily be justified as they come directly from the data and they are more meaningful and more useful to policy makers. The use of emergent categories helps a researcher to break out of traditional academic conceptualisations or those developed in academic literature in other contexts.

It also acknowledges that there are different ways to define and specify factors that impact on a setting, thus bringing research closer to the social world being investigated. Open-ended interviews and direct quotations are used to capture the language and point of view of the participants. Direct quotations, as Patton p. This gives the researcher and the reader an opportunity to listen to, and analyse the words of the 40 participants.

In this way, their meanings are less likely to suffer the effects of a filter created by the researcher’s interpretation of the meanings. In the first years, interviews with the Education Assistants took place approximately once a fortnight for about one hour, either at the EAs’ home or at school.

In these interviews, guided questions rather than standardised questions were used as a framework see Appendix 1. Guided, rather than standardised, questions and a deliberately informal interview atmosphere were used in order to enable the participants to speak more freely about the issues that were of concern to them. Restricting the questions to those developed prior to the interview would have limited the potential for the interview to draw out issues of significance to the participants.

Follow up interviews were designed to explore themes that emerged over time and throughout the study, the participants were regularly asked to comment and reflect on themes identified by researcher. This enabled the researcher to adjust themes and identify significant categories based on the participants’ points of view. It is significant to note that the type of strategies used to collect data changed through the course of the research as some proved more effective and less intrusive than others.

As an example, in the third year, as their own work and study loads increased, the participants found it easier and more convenient to be given interview questions in a written form so that they could record their answers by themselves on tape, in their own time Appendix 2. They explained that they found the interview situation, with tape recorder running, quite ‘nerve wracking’. They asked if it would be possible for them to take the questions and a tape recorder home and answer them on their own and in their own time.

This enabled them to think carefully about their answers, formulate their English responses and edit the tape if they wanted to. The EAs’ preference for recording their responses independently may be viewed as an indication of the way in which they viewed their own abilities as English language 41 speakers in relation to a ‘formal’ interview situation and in particular where the interviewer was a first language speaker, a Doctoral student and their boss.

All these identities gave the researcher status and power in the interview situation despite a close personal relationship , which was a potentially threatening, or at the very least uncomfortable, situation. The ‘solo taped’ interviews proved very forthcoming and although they did not provide the researcher with the opportunity to ask for immediate elaboration, they had the advantage of preventing the researcher from interrupting, dominating and steering the conversation where she wanted it to go.

Whilst there were advantages and disadvantages in using the ‘solo tape’ method it was ethically responsible to minimise the pressure the research imposed on the participants. Narratives, in this case, were made up of several components including simple facts about the participants’ “life spaces”, beliefs and ideas about themselves and others, and more abstract questions that attempted to summarise and consolidate their experiences.

Once a fortnight, during the first year of the research, the Education Assistants were asked to respond to a range of questions in a reflective journal Appendix 3. Responses were gained using qualitative strategies including focus questions, metaphors and open-ended questions “designed to encourage unforced narrative” Shipman, , p.

The use of narrative as a tool for capturing the multidimensional complexities of teacher stories has a very strong tradition Jalango, M.

In Gitlin , for example, the rationale for the use of narrative is that it provides a way of connecting the personal with the professional and thinking with 42 feeling.

It is also heralded as a way to develop reflexivity by acting as both a mirror and a window in which the writer is able to look at themselves and the reader to view others. The narrative writing in this case was used as a data collection tool and a guide to further written and oral questions that sought to expand and clarify themes that emerged. Narrative writing proved a useful tool in the study as it elicited a great deal of data in the initial twelve months.

After the first year, however, the researcher reduced the number of written entries she requested quite significantly as she found that this form of data collection was the most arduous and unpopular for the participants. As students learning and writing in English as a Second Language ESL , they said it was much easier and less time consuming to talk than to write because writing involved lots more attention to spelling and grammar.

This was despite being reassured by the researcher that Standard Australian English spelling and grammar was not important for her in this context.

Even so, the participants felt uncomfortable submitting written texts which they considered to be substandard English4. It was considered unethical to put extra pressure on the participants, who were already under considerable pressure from working full time and studying, so the journal writing was replaced with more interviews later in the study.

These events were recorded in regular field notes on daily activities and ‘critical incidents’ Tripp, p. Kellehear refers to Rathje and Babbie to argue that such observation methods have the advantage of assessing “actual behaviour as opposed to self reported behaviour”. The researcher’s various roles as 4 This was yet another example of their belief that they needed to comply with what they believed to be the grammatical rales of the dominant Discourse in their interactions with the researcher despite her assurances to the contrary.

The use of direct observation also adds to the triangulation of data by providing information from the researcher’s point of view. The field notes were recorded on a regular basis in the form of a reflective journal in which the researcher described critical events and experiences as they unfolded from her point of view.

A case analysis for each individual provides rich and detailed information about the factors that have impacted on each Education Assistant, as an individual, given that each has a different set of life experiences or what Lewin would call a different “life space” , xi. A cross-case analysis at the end of Chapter 4 broadens the generalizability of the findings, within this particular context, by focusing on those factors that have impacted on all of the Education Assistants. Following the Glaser and Strauss approach, data analysis has been on going throughout the data collection phase.

As ideas and analytical insights emerged from the data, reflective notes and memos were made into field notes. Using this thematic approach to data analysis, the analysis began with some ideas or issues conceived initially by the researcher.

Other themes were added as they emerged in the data. After interviews and observations the participants were consulted to see if they agreed with the researcher’s 44 interpretations. In this way meanings attached to themes more closely reflected the beliefs and understandings of the participants. The trustworthiness of the data and analysis in this paradigm is therefore tied to how well the researcher can reflect the insider’s point of view. Analysis began during the collection phase and as analytical insights formed they were regularly recorded in field notes.

These notes formed the initial category headings such as ‘health’, ‘teacher attitudes’, and ‘industrial relations issues’. Throughout the course of the data collection process, these categories were discussed with the EAs, mentors and others involved in the program to see to what extent they felt them to be significant. As new pieces of data were collected they were either added to existing categories or assigned a new category.

A category was assigned significance once it was saturated. This occurred when enough data had been collected to demonstrate that it was a recurring and important factor Glaser and Strauss, Each particular category, once broken down into its “elements of construction”, was then related to other categories and assigned a relative ‘weight’ in terms of its significance in moving the participants towards or away from their goal of “becoming a teacher”.

In keeping with its philosophical principles, the research used both researcher and participant generated categories. Categories were initially generated by the researcher and therefore more closely reflect the researcher’s worldview than that of the Education Assistants. Although limited in this respect, there is validity in the researcher’s 45 typologies given the researcher’s knowledge and sensitivity gained from time spent in the field.

The researcher was also able to identify categories that the Education Assistants may not have recognized for themselves. To make the categories more inclusive and more representative of the Education Assistants’ way of organising the world, they were asked to review the trustworthiness of the categories. Lofland , p. This was done at the end of the first year of the research proper, and then more regularly once a term as the data collection phase moved to a close and the data analysis phase became more significant.

Discourse analysis was used as a tool of enquiry to help reveal and understand the underlying values and worldviews of the various Discourses involved in this study. According to Gee, underlying values and attitudes are manifested in the various ways language and “other stuff” such as dress, attitudes to time, material possessions, body language, learning styles etc are used by members of particular Discourse groups in any given situation or context , p.

These meanings are based on our knowledge, past experiences and the context we are in at the time. In other words, depending on where we are, who we are, who we are with and on what we already know and understand from past experience, a different image may be triggered in our heads by a particular word or action. As an example the phrase ‘getting dressed up’ for one person may mean putting on stilettos and a ‘little black dress’ where as for a 13 year old this may mean jeans, joggers and a baseball cap.

Whilst these triggered images are largely a function of individuals’ peculiar life experiences, they may also be attributed to particular ‘cultural models’, story lines or Conversations shared by people belonging to particular social or cultural groups.

If the 13 year old belongs to a ‘surfie’ culture, for example, she might wear her best board shorts and thongs, as this is deemed appropriate in this culture and context. If she is playing a piano recital at her grandmother’s birthday party she may need to wear a long black skirt and top. If her Grandmother is Moslem she may need to cover her arms and legs and wear a scarf or veil. Ways of talking, thinking and acting are also interchangeable according to the context and the social or cultural groups with which a person belongs.

People attune their social languages, including the words they use and how they frame them in a phrase, sentence, paragraph or narrative as well as other non- verbal cues such as the way they dress, sit, stand or position themselves in a room according to the context. In turn the context and their understanding of it informs the way that they speak or act in a given situation. According to Gee, language and context are like two mirrors constantly and endlessly reflecting their own image , p.

The extent to which an individual can speak and act appropriately in a given context, or the extent to which they can ‘pull off speaking and acting as ‘real’ or as a legitimate actor in the context, is determined by their knowledge and understanding of the situation and the degree of inclusivity of the particular context. If, for example, to be accepted as a ‘real teacher’ in a contemporary Australian context, an individual should be able to speak and write Standard Australian English, should wear a suit, should have a certain level of content knowledge, should have an understanding and acceptance of diverse learning styles and reflective teaching strategies informed by cognitivist or constructionist approaches to pedagogy and should have a positive self image about their own knowledge, then to be accepted as a ‘real teacher’ an individual must display these characteristics.

These characteristics are determined by the socio-culrural, political and historical factors that have shaped, and continue to shape, what it means to be a ‘real teacher’ in an Australian context. A similar approach to Discourse analysis used by Gee is used in this research, as a way of revealing the underlying values inherent in the different Discourses at play. Primarily this approach aims to uncover the values, attitudes, narratives and Conversations Gee, that are carried within the various Discourses being examined.

It is argued that each of these Discourses has the potential to impact critically on the ability of the Education Assistants to change their roles and become teachers. Such an examination 48 aims to draw out factors that enable them to “pull off” being recognised and accepted as a “real teacher” as well as those which inhibit this.

This will help to inform the reshaping of ITE programs so that they are more truly inclusive of other Discourses. It also comes from being explicit about what types of data were used to develop a particular interpretation and ensuring the categories and properties are clear and meaningful. According to Gee , p. Not everything can be included – it is up to the analyst to argue the case that what was included or missed out was relevant or irrelevant to the point being made.

Glaser and Strauss also see the validity of data analysis as tied to how well the researcher’s understanding of the culture parallels that culture’s view of itself. A Grounded Approach, where themes are drawn from the data and verified as to their relative significance by the participants, has been used in this research to maximise the trustworthiness of the analysis.

These factors include social, political, historical, cultural, personal and environmental factors. This assumption, drawn from the work of Kurt Lewin , implies that a phenomenon must be studied holistically, taking into 49 consideration a diverse and interrelated set of factors that make up the “life spaces” of the participants. Data collection and analysis tools therefore must be comprehensive and varied so as to take into account these many different factors that have the potential to impact upon the phenomenon.

In particular the socio-cultural context within which the study is located is of major significance and must be examined and analysed for its impact upon the phenomenon. Another central assumption, that draws on the work of socio-cultural and Discourse theorists such as Bourdieu and Passeron and Gee in this research, is that education is an important player in the distribution of wealth and power in a society.

Therefore those who are able to make decisions about the who, what, where, when and why of education have a great deal of social control over the distribution of wealth and power. It is also assumed that teachers are an integral part of the education process and through their actions can influence, to a great extent, who receives education, to what level and what type of education they receive.

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In this way Lewin’s theory is a precursor to later socio- cultural and Discourse theories that also called into question the deeper and contextualised meanings that lay beneath such concepts. Using mathematical symbols, Lewin tried to represent the individual “elements of construction” that make up a particular aspect of human behaviour. These elements can be classified as either “Driving” forces or “Restraining” forces. If both are equal then the movement toward the goal may remain in equilibrium.

If the aim of the research is to illuminate ways to move the individual or group towards a particular goal, then breaking the factors down to their “elements of construction” and determining their relative “Driving” or “Restraining” effects can aid in this process. As well as attempting to better conceptualise complex aspects of human behaviour by breaking them down into their “elements of construction”, Lewin also believed that “agents of change” were multiple and interdependent.

Using a holistic approach he argued that many events and processes must be included as “agents of change” when examining causes for human behaviour. These included the physical environment, the economic, legal and political spheres as well as the individual’s needs, goals and cognitive structure.

All these aspects were part of what Lewin called the “field” or the “life space” of the individual that must be considered as determinants in the person’s changed state. Lewin also adopted a Gestalt approach, arguing that the field which influences a person can only properly be described in the way in which it exists for that person at that time, that is, from their point of view.

In response to critics of this approach, who argued it was fraught with subjectivity, Lewin claimed that his approach was more objective than others being promoted at the time. In fact he believed that: 25 To describe a situation ‘objectively’ in psychology actually means to describe it as a totality of those facts and only those facts that make up the field of the individual – to substitute that world of the individual for the world of the teacher, of the physicist, or anyone else – this is to be not objective but wrong.

Lewin, , p. Field Theory is consistent with the theoretical assumptions that guide this work. These include, firstly, that a researcher’s beliefs impact on the selection of data, on analysis, and therefore on the findings of any research. Analytical rigour is a way to formalise this process of conceptualisation to ensure that the researcher’s way of interpreting and understanding events that occur in the field are not imposed upon the concepts being investigated.

Secondly, in Field Theory, factors impacting on a phenomenon are considered to be interrelated and therefore cannot be seen in isolation from each other. Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory approach Lewin, is used in this research as it provides a rigorous methodology to examine how forces that create change can be discovered, researched, analysed and described. Lewin’s Field Theory is relevant to this research because it is an approach that aids in the conceptualisation of data by breaking “common use” terms down into their “elements of construction”.

This is in keeping with a socio-cultural approach that recognises that so-called “common use” understandings may be fraught with socio-culturally determined meanings. This level of conceptualisation is important, especially within a context that is outside the researcher’s usual frame of reference, in order to more accurately represent the meanings of such terms for the participants.

By using Lewin’s approach, those factors which emerge from the data which have a positive or “Driving” impact on the goal becoming a teacher can be distinguished from those that have a negative or 26 “Restraining” impact.

The relative strength of each “Driving” or “Restraining” force can then be visualised and better understood using Lewin’s conceptualising techniques.

Importantly, too, it provides yet another way of minimising the impact of the researcher’s worldview and academic discourse on the data collection and analysis process.

In order to do so it borrows from the ideas of Strauss , Bourdieu and Passeron and in particular James Gee Using this theoretical framework and analytical approach the ITE program under examination is viewed as a kind of “social text”.

In this case “social texts” refer to written and spoken texts as well as those that are “symbolically articulated” Ka Tat Tsang, , section 2, para.

Strauss, for example, claims that: Identities imply not merely personal histories but also social histories If you wish to understand persons, their development and their relations with significant others, you must be prepared to view them as embedded in social context.

In other words, as Bufton explains it, Bourdieu’s “habitus” is a “bridge between the ‘objective’ realm of social contexts and the ‘subjective’ realm of individual experience and action”. Importantly, Bourdieu also argues that while habitus or the interplay between the individual and the social differs between individuals depending on their personality and life experiences, shared experiences of the social world that people may have because of their social positioning class, gender, ethnicity, age tend to produce a collective habitus.

This means that people who share external socio-cultural experiences are likely to have similar personal experiences, dispositions and ways of acting, behaving and thinking in and about the world. According to Bourdieu, it is these shared experiences 28 and understandings that underpin cultural differences between social classes and other groups: The habitus could be considered as a subjective but not individual system of internalised structures, schemes of perception, conception and action common to all members of the same group or class and constituting the precondition for all objectification and apperception Bourdieu and Passeron, p.

In Bufton, Through an analysis of these attributes, which are primarily acquired in childhood from primary caregivers, Bourdieu maintains that a “host of social meanings and values” can be gained: Strictly biological differences are underlined and symbolically accentuated by differences in bearing, differences in gesture, posture and behaviour which express a whole relationship to the social world. Bourdieu, , p. Further to this, Bourdieu argues that language is a significant indicator of the social groups to which a person belongs.

He claims that language: betrays, in the very utterance, a relation to language which is common to a whole category of speakers because it is the product of the social conditions of the acquisition and use of language.

For Gee language is made up of what he refers to as “other stuff” which includes body language, gestures, actions, symbols, tools, technologies, values, attitudes, beliefs and emotions Gee, , p. These ways of communicating and of acting are often, according to Gee, supported by a range of props, which can include such material and non-material identifiers as accents, writing styles, dress standards, building designs or an assortment of possessions that can be used to signal the values and beliefs of an individual or group.

All these props go towards creating an image that signals membership of a particular group and which can be recognised both by members of the groups and those outside it. Gee uses a capital D for Discourse to signal that he is referring to both words and all this “other stuff” that language involves. Gee’s version of Discourse theory also makes the assumption, like Bourdieu, that people who are from or belong to different socio-cultural or socio-economic groups have certain shared values and ways of seeing, acting, thinking and behaving in the world Gee, , p.

These Gee refers to as Discourses with a capital D as they include language and all the “other stuff” that is referred to earlier. A Discourse may belong to a particular cultural or ethnic group, a socio-economic group, a social or professional group or an institution.

Each has its own particular ways of talking, writing, acting, and thinking about the world. Importantly Gee argues that through Discourse analysis the beliefs and values and Conversations that underpin these surface ways of interacting can be revealed. Whilst Gee acknowledges that people belong to, and move in and out of, multiple Discourse groups such as their professional group when they are at work and their social group on the week-end, there are certain Discourses which play a more significant role in the way people think and act.

These are often the ones that are learned as children, from their immediate care-givers Gee, In this, often rather 30 closed-environment, children learn what the family considers to be appropriate forms of communication, ways to dress, manners and importantly values and beliefs.

Gradually, as they move out of their family or home environment they encounter other Discourses that are practiced in the wider community of school, work and social life. These new Discourses and the Conversations they carry may be similar to or in conflict with those learned within the home and they also may hold a different amount of power and status within a community.

As an example, in order to be accepted into a Western school-based Discourse, an individual needs to take on and demonstrate certain ways of speaking, writing, thinking and behaving that fit that particular institution. This may include such things as sitting at a desk, listening without interrupting, raising a hand to ask a question or, as in constructivist and inquiry based pedagogies, working collaboratively, problem solving, questioning or taking risks. For some individuals or social groups such behaviours are very much in tune with patterns of behaviour learned in the home where everything, including the physical appearance of the classroom and the teacher, has a sense of familiarity to them.

For other individuals and social groups the language and “other stuff that surrounds school-based Discourse may be unfamiliar, alien or, as is often the case, in direct conflict with those previously experienced. This is the case both for 31 young children entering school for the first time and for some adults entering Higher Education Institutions.

Scollon and Scollen in Gee, , p. The Western essayist tradition requires that the writers perform a major show of self-display, which goes against Athabaskan social mores. In order to be successful within the prevailing Western school-based Discourse, children from dissimilar backgrounds must both learn and be willing, or motivated, to accept a very different set of ‘rules of engagement’ than those they have grown up with.

This notion that Discourses can be, and generally are, used to serve political interests i. According to this theory, not all Discourses have equal status and power and not all people have equal access to all Discourses, particularly the most powerful ones. People who belong to, or are accepted into, a Dominant Discourse have access to greater socio-economic and cultural resources including wealth, status and education. Big ‘C’ Conversations are for Gee the sorts of long running and important themes or topics, which are considered appropriately discussable, sayable or meaning-able for a given group at a particular time Gee, p.

This might be, for example, what it is considered appropriate to say, do and even think about women’s place in society, child-rearing practices, what and how teachers should teach and even what a teacher should look and sound like. As carriers of Conversations, Discourses have the power to influence attitudes and values that permeate a society. Examples of Conversations that are relevant in this research, and which are explored using Discourse theory and analysis, are those of colonialism, neo-colonialism, Confucianism, Malay Islam as well as those associated with gender and age and their interface with the Discourse of Western education and in particular those represented in the ITE program associated with this study.

In other words it is assumed that each of these Discourses will have something to say Conversations about education and in particular who should become teachers and how they should teach. Like Gee’s work, this research assumes that there are dominant and marginal Discourses in any society. It assumes, for example, that the EAs in this study, who are Chinese or Malay, come from a marginal Discourse within the Australian educational landscape and are seeking access to a more dominant Discourse, that of being a teacher.

At the same time, they have to 33 learn the Discourse patterns that are expected of a classroom teacher within the unique context of Christmas Island DHS. Gee likens this process of taking on the multiple aspects of an identity like ‘being a teacher’, with its coordinated pattern of words, deeds, values, beliefs, symbols, tools, objects, times and places, as learning to dance the dance. These issues of identity formation, particularly when framed within a neo-colonial context, are taken up in the following chapters.

Discourse Theory and some perspectives derived from Post- Colonial Theory Fannon, are used to develop an understanding of the role that this apparent need for an identity shift has on the EAs’ ability to engage successfully with the ITE program and to become teachers. Fanon , p. The colonized is elevated above his jungle status in proportion to the adoption of the mother country’s cultural standards. The specific way in which the EAs in this case study were expected to take on the identity of student and teacher within the neo-colonialist context of the study are explored in the following chapters.

The extent to which a Discourse is flexible and accessible enough to allow people from different Discourses into it, is a measure of its actual rather than rhetorical inclusivity.

The accessibility of Discourses is to a large extent related to the values and beliefs inherent in the Conversations that inform it. As an example, a Discourse such as colonialism, which is informed by racist attitudes, will exclude members on the basis of their ethnicity. One of the purposes for using Discourse theory and analysis in this research is to gain a better understanding of the types of Conversations that are 34 informing the Discourses of Academe and of the teaching profession and how these are impacting on the engagement of people from non-mainstream Discourses.

Discourse analysis, therefore, provides a tool for analysing the communicative patterns of a Discourse in order to reveal its hidden rules and its underlying values and assumptions.

This will provide crucial information that needs to be included in any program aimed at enabling Education Assistants to shift from a marginalised Discourse to a more dominant one. Given that one of the aims of this research is to provide recommendations for the modification of ITE programs in order to make them more socially just and accessible to people from non-mainstream backgrounds, Gee’s model of analysis is appropriate and useful in this study.

The specific tools of enquiry used in this research that are drawn from Gee’s Discourse approach are included in section 4. As Patton puts it, heuristic inquiry asks: What is my experience of this phenomenon and the essential experience of others who also experience this phenomenon intensely. In line with this, Craig defines heuriskin as ‘I find’, which reflects a unique feature of heuristic inquiry – the legitimisation of the experiences, personal insights and reflections of the researcher in Patton, , p.

Even more than other forms of qualitative study, heuristics places great emphasis on the importance of the researcher’s personal knowledge and what Polanyi describes as “indwelling and tacit knowing” in Patton, , p. Through the course of an investigation, a researcher using this form of inquiry aims to combine his or her personal experiences and knowledge with those of the participants in the study.

Specific methodological strategies have been used in this research to minimize the impact of the researcher’s cultural perspectives on the data analysis. In order to achieve the aim of understanding the phenomenon primarily from the viewpoint of the participants, the impact of the researcher, through her various roles, needs to be made explicit.

This is partly because the research techniques used in this study depend upon the skill of the researcher to know, understand and get inside the setting. The researcher’s personal knowledge, sensitivity and understandings, gained through extensive work in the field, are recognised as being a significant and valuable part of the data collection and analysis process.

The multiple and significant roles played by the researcher in this study, include that of academic researcher, school administrator, school practicum program coordinator, university liaison, advocate, lobbyist, advisor, mentor and friend. The actions, thoughts and feelings of the researcher as she played out these various roles need to be acknowledged and analysed as they form a critical component of the outcomes of the program. According to Douglas and Moustakas in Patton, , p. Through exhaustive self-search, dialogues with others, and creative depictions of experience, a comprehensive knowledge is generated, beginning as a series of subjective understandings and developing into a systematic and definitive exposition.

Thus, the rigour of heuristic inquiry comes from systematic observation of the dialogue and actions of both the researcher and the participants. The researcher’s various and 36 significant roles in the development of the program under study are described and analysed in Chapter 7. The intention is to both describe the varied techniques used to gather and analyse the rich data and to explain why these techniques are appropriate in this context.

During this time a number of different data collection strategies were used. These included formal and informal open-ended interviews, participant narrative journal writing, regular field notes from participant observations, and the collection of relevant written documents3. Open-ended interviews provided an opportunity for the participants to speak about issues in their own way, whilst written journals enabled them to use the more private and solitary written form of language, to present their ideas and opinions.

Participant observations enabled the researcher to document significant physical or material data such as the design of buildings and the layout of rooms as well as the events and actions that took place. It also enabled her to include data on expressive movements and other forms of non-verbal language behavior Gee’s “other stuff” that underlie, and can help in gaining a better understanding of the meaning of the verbal behaviour.

The choice of techniques was determined by what was considered by the researcher to be most appropriate and useful at the time and in the context. Ethical considerations regarding the extent to which the research added an extra burden to the participants was also a major determinant of the methods used. It was also necessary to use culturally 3 Samples of these are included in the appendices. Given their non-mainstream backgrounds in terms of their ethnicity, age and previous educational experiences, they provided a good example of the type of student for whom current systemic government and HEI cultural diversity policies were being trialed and implemented.

The properties of a category were simply a further abstraction of a category. For example, the category ‘mentors’ may have properties such as formal support, informal support, forms of payment and so on. It is important to note that according to Glaser and Strauss , p.

They are dependent on the researcher’s insight and perceptions and are only validated by the evidence that emerges to support them and by the extent to which they are rendered meaningful and legitimate by the participants. With increasing levels of abstraction, categories may become related and this interrelatedness becomes the core of the emerging model and theory.

An important principle in emergent theory is the need to be constantly alert to emerging categories that might develop theory. In keeping with the underlying principles of this 39 method, theory should not be established too quickly and data should not be gathered to justify it.

Through the process of data collection and analysis to develop categories, often multiple hypotheses emerge and are pursued simultaneously.

This gives the researcher and the reader an opportunity to listen to, and analyse the words of the 40 participants. In this way, their meanings are less likely to suffer the effects of a filter created by the researcher’s interpretation of the meanings. In the first years, interviews with the Education Assistants took place approximately once a fortnight for about one hour, either at the EAs’ home or at school.

Restricting the questions to those developed prior to the interview would have limited the potential for the interview to draw out issues of significance to the participants. Follow up interviews were designed to explore themes that emerged over time and throughout the study, the participants were regularly asked to comment and reflect on themes identified by researcher.

This enabled the researcher to adjust themes and identify significant categories based on the participants’ points of view. It is significant to note that the type of strategies used to collect data changed through the course of the research as some proved more effective and less intrusive than others.

They explained that they found the interview situation, with tape recorder running, quite ‘nerve wracking’. They asked if it would be possible for them to take the questions and a tape recorder home and answer them on their own and in their own time. This enabled them to think carefully about their answers, formulate their English responses and edit the tape if they wanted to. The EAs’ preference for recording their responses independently may be viewed as an indication of the way in which they viewed their own abilities as English language 41 speakers in relation to a ‘formal’ interview situation and in particular where the interviewer was a first language speaker, a Doctoral student and their boss.

Responses were gained using qualitative strategies including focus questions, metaphors and open-ended questions “designed to encourage unforced narrative” Shipman, , p. The use of narrative as a tool for capturing the multidimensional complexities of teacher stories has a very strong tradition Jalango, M. In Gitlin , for example, the rationale for the use of narrative is that it provides a way of connecting the personal with the professional and thinking with 42 feeling.

Kellehear refers to Rathje and Babbie to argue that such observation methods have the advantage of assessing “actual behaviour as opposed to self reported behaviour”. The researcher’s various roles as 4 This was yet another example of their belief that they needed to comply with what they believed to be the grammatical rales of the dominant Discourse in their interactions with the researcher despite her assurances to the contrary.

The journal described the time and place, people involved, outside influences, how she felt about the situation and what impact it had on the participants and the emerging program. Examples of field notes related to critical incidents are included as Appendix 5. A case record for each individual and a thematically organised case study has been developed from these data. A case analysis for each individual provides rich and detailed information about the factors that have impacted on each Education Assistant, as an individual, given that each has a different set of life experiences or what Lewin would call a different “life space” , xi.

A cross-case analysis at the end of Chapter 4 broadens the generalizability of the findings, within this particular context, by focusing on those factors that have impacted on all of the Education Assistants.

Following the Glaser and Strauss approach, data analysis has been on going throughout the data collection phase. As ideas and analytical insights emerged from the data, reflective notes and memos were made into field notes. Using this thematic approach to data analysis, the analysis began with some ideas or issues conceived initially by the researcher. Other themes were added as they emerged in the data. After interviews and observations the participants were consulted to see if they agreed with the researcher’s 44 interpretations.

In this way meanings attached to themes more closely reflected the beliefs and understandings of the participants. The trustworthiness of the data and analysis in this paradigm is therefore tied to how well the researcher can reflect the insider’s point of view.

Analysis began during the collection phase and as analytical insights formed they were regularly recorded in field notes. These notes formed the initial category headings such as ‘health’, ‘teacher attitudes’, and ‘industrial relations issues’. Throughout the course of the data collection process, these categories were discussed with the EAs, mentors and others involved in the program to see to what extent they felt them to be significant.

As new pieces of data were collected they were either added to existing categories or assigned a new category. A category was assigned significance once it was saturated.

This occurred when enough data had been collected to demonstrate that it was a recurring and important factor Glaser and Strauss, Each particular category, once broken down into its “elements of construction”, was then related to other categories and assigned a relative ‘weight’ in terms of its significance in moving the participants towards or away from their goal of “becoming a teacher”.

To make the categories more inclusive and more representative of the Education Assistants’ way of organising the world, they were asked to review the trustworthiness of the categories. Lofland , p. This was done at the end of the first year of the research proper, and then more regularly once a term as the data collection phase moved to a close and the data analysis phase became more significant.

Thus, through analysis of these manifestations, an understanding of deeper values and beliefs can be gained. Gee , p. Situated meanings are the images or patterns we assemble in our heads about a word or phrase as we communicate. These meanings are based on our knowledge, past experiences and the context we are in at the time.

In other words, depending on where we are, who we are, who we are with and on what we already know and understand from past experience, a different image may be triggered in our heads by a particular word or action. As an example the phrase ‘getting dressed up’ for one person may mean putting on stilettos and a ‘little black dress’ where as for a 13 year old this may mean jeans, joggers and a baseball cap.

This also may vary according to where the person is going, with whom and ultimately for what purpose. In this study the word ‘teacher’ or ‘HEI student’ may have different situated meanings for different individuals or groups. Whilst these triggered images are largely a function of individuals’ peculiar life experiences, they may also be attributed to particular ‘cultural models’, story lines or Conversations shared by people belonging to particular social or cultural groups.

Ways of talking, thinking and acting are also interchangeable according to the context and the social or cultural groups with which a person belongs. People attune their social languages, including the words they use and how they frame them in a phrase, sentence, paragraph or narrative as well as other non- verbal cues such as the way they dress, sit, stand or position themselves in a room according to the context.

In turn the context and their understanding of it informs the way that they speak or act in a given situation. According to Gee, language and context are like two mirrors constantly and endlessly reflecting their own image , p. The extent to which an individual can speak and act appropriately in a given context, or the extent to which they can ‘pull off speaking and acting as ‘real’ or as a legitimate actor in the context, is determined by their knowledge and understanding of the situation and the degree of inclusivity of the particular context.

If, for example, to be accepted as a ‘real teacher’ in a contemporary Australian context, an individual should be able to speak and write Standard Australian English, should wear a suit, should have a certain level of content knowledge, should have an understanding and acceptance of diverse learning styles and reflective teaching strategies informed by cognitivist or constructionist approaches to pedagogy and should have a positive self image about their own knowledge, then to be accepted as a ‘real teacher’ an individual must display these characteristics.

It is argued that each of these Discourses has the potential to impact critically on the ability of the Education Assistants to change their roles and become teachers.

Such an examination 48 aims to draw out factors that enable them to “pull off” being recognised and accepted as a “real teacher” as well as those which inhibit this.

According to Gee , p. Not everything can be included – it is up to the analyst to argue the case that what was included or missed out was relevant or irrelevant to the point being made. Glaser and Strauss also see the validity of data analysis as tied to how well the researcher’s understanding of the culture parallels that culture’s view of itself. A Grounded Approach, where themes are drawn from the data and verified as to their relative significance by the participants, has been used in this research to maximise the trustworthiness of the analysis.

Data collection and analysis tools therefore must be comprehensive and varied so as to take into account these many different factors that have the potential to impact upon the phenomenon. In particular the socio-cultural context within which the study is located is of major significance and must be examined and analysed for its impact upon the phenomenon. Another central assumption, that draws on the work of socio-cultural and Discourse theorists such as Bourdieu and Passeron and Gee in this research, is that education is an important player in the distribution of wealth and power in a society.

The training or education of teachers is therefore a critical aspect of social management in a society. A further principle upon which this research rests is that whilst it is recognised that each individual’s “life space” is informed by a unique set of experiences, there are also common themes and motifs that can be identified as belonging to certain socio-cultural groups. These common themes or “Conversations” as Gee puts it, play a significant role in determining acceptable or dominant ways of speaking, acting, thinking and, perhaps most importantly, valuing within a community.

Through methods drawn for semiotic analysis and Gee’s Discourse analysis, such “Big C Conversations”, particularly those inherent in Discourses of colonialism, neo-colonialism and Western education systems and the values they represent, can be identified. Exposing these often hidden assumptions or values and making them explicit is a fundamental aspect of 50 this research dealing as it does with issues directly related to specific and sometimes covert power structures within society.

Another significant assumption made in this research is that both the researcher and the act of postgraduate Doctoral research have had a significant impact on the phenomenon under investigation. Being enrolled as a Doctoral student, gave the researcher access to people and information that she may not normally have had. Making this study a part of a Doctorate, therefore, had a significant impact on the outcome of the study and is therefore in itself a feature of the Discourse of Academe and evidence of the power of the “Big C Conversations” that underpin it.

This impact must therefore be clearly articulated as it forms a crucial part of the case study. Specific qualitative methodological tools were deliberately used to collect and analysis data given that the researcher was at once observer and active participant. A further important, but related assumption, given the intercultural context of this study and the assumption that there are different worldviews and ways of making meaning in the world, is that the viewpoints of the participants are likely to be different from that of the researcher, who belongs to a dominant Western Discourse.

For this research to be trustworthy and useful, it was absolutely necessary to use methodological tools that were able to elicit the viewpoints of the non-mainstream participants who were the focus of the study. It was also necessary to be flexible in the use of these tools as the researcher developed, throughout the study, a better understanding of the best ways to gather and analyse data in an initially unfamiliar context.

The primary purpose of the study was to find out what factors acted as “Driving” or “Restraining” forces on the participants achieving their goal of becoming teachers.

The use of a Grounded methodological approach based on the work of Glaser and Strauss provided the researcher with the opportunity to go into the field with a set of hunches, but no clear thesis, as to what these factors would be. A range of varied and variable 51 qualitative tools of inquiry were then used to collect and analyse the data as it emerged within the context and through the duration of the study.

This approach was in keeping with the theoretical principles of the study and its practical application. Gaining the viewpoints of the participants enabled the researcher to see the range of “Driving” and “Restraining” forces that were impacting upon their successful engagement with the ITE program from their point of view.

This data could then be used to formulate a set of recommendations able to be used by HEIs, educational jurisdictions, schools and school systems so that they are better able to meet the needs of non-mainstream students. Adoption of such recommendations would thus move equity rhetoric closer to reality. In keeping with this theoretical framework, this chapter firstly describes the geographical and socio-cultural context of Christmas Island for the reader, and secondly analyses and critiques the underlying political, economic and social forces that have significance for this study.

The island is believed by some, to be the tip of an undersea volcano, which emerged from the Indian Ocean over 60 million years ago. As the island has never been connected to a landmass, it has evolved in isolation and has become home to many rare species of plants and animals Woodmore, , p. Historically, the island’s main exploitable natural economic resource has been its rich phosphate deposits.

The discovery and subsequent mining of this natural resource by the British and then Australian governments under a colonialist administrative system with its Discourses of exploitation and social division has had a significant impact on the economic, political and social development of the island.

It has a maximum length of Two thirds of the island is covered by dense tropical rain forest, most of which now lies within a national park, administered and protected by the Australian Federal Government through Parks Australia North.

Figure 2 Map showing aerial view of settled areas and National Park The island is famous for its multitude of Red Crabs over million , which migrate annually from the jungle through the settled areas to the ocean. Once they reach the shoreline, they mate and then the females release their eggs into the ocean, in one of the most amazing natural phenomena on earth. Because of its location, approximately 10 degrees south of the equator, Christmas Island has a sub-equatorial climate.

The rainy season usually begins in December and continues until April. Temperatures remain fairly stable with a year round average temperature of 27 degrees Celsius.

The majority of Christmas Islanders have a Malaysian or Singaporean cultural heritage. All these Discourses continue to inform the ‘way of life’ of Christmas Islanders including their beliefs and attitudes towards such things as family, education and government. They also inform the way people view themselves within the social and economic structure of the island.

As well as the religious and cultural complexity, there is also linguistic complexity on Christmas Island. People actively maintain and support the development of their first languages on the island through their continued first language use and their support of a Saturday language school. Currently there are two flights to and from mainland Australia each week. These flights take between 6 and 8 hours depending on whether they go via the neighbouring 55 Cocos Keeling Islands.

Alternative routes off the island are to the north via Indonesia. Currently these flights are weekly and are also expensive. The northern route is the most common exit point for most Christmas Islanders as the majority of families originate from, and maintain close family ties with Malaysia. As families spend any extended time off the island in Malaysia or Singapore, they are generally not exposed to Standard Australian English SAE or mainland Australian cultural contexts either on island or during holidays.

The school on Christmas Island currently caters for the educational needs of around students from Kindergarten to Year The Federal Government pays for these services including the provision of teaching and administrative staff and a Western Australian curriculum at no cost to the state.

Figure 3 Year 3 students working on a Malay language project at CIDHS 56 Culturally and linguistically, the student population of around reflects that of the island. The majority of the students identify themselves as Chinese Malay. It is argued in this chapter that one of the most pervasive of these forces has been, and continues to be, the impact of colonialist and subsequently neo-colonialist attitudes and practices that have developed on Christmas Island since its ‘discovery’ and colonisation by the British in the late s.

Other major Discourses are also seen as significant in shaping the “life spaces” of the Education Assistants and others in this study including the Discourses inherent in Malaysian post-colonial politics, those of Malay Islam, Buddhism and Confucianism. According to Wikipedia a free online encyclopaedia , for example: Colonialism is a system in which a state claims sovereignty over territory and people outside its own boundaries, often to facilitate economic determination over their resources, labour and often markets.

The term also refers to a set of beliefs used to legitimise or promote this system, especially the belief that the mores of the coloniser are superior to the colonised. Cecil Rhodes, the former ‘founder’ of Rhodesia, powerfully captures the economic motives for colonisation: We must find new lands from which we can easily obtain raw materials and at the same time exploit the cheap slave labour that is available.

The colonies would also provide a dumping ground for the surplus goods produced in our factories. In The Land Is Ours, para. Implicit in the colonial relationship, particularly under the mercantilist system, was a denial of equality that humiliated and antagonised colonial opinion.

Earl Grey’s comments in also serve as a chilling reminder of the types of attitudes inherent in the colonialist mentality: Probably everyone would agree that an Englishman would be right in considering his way of looking at the world and at life better than that of the Maori or Hottentot, and no-one will object in the abstract to England doing her best to impose her better and higher view on these savages Phillipson, p.

In Skuttnabb-Kangas and Cummins, These points are reiterated by Leong Yew who, whilst recognising that the term ‘colonialism’ is a contested one that needs teasing out for example, the differences between French and British colonial practices , acknowledges that there are certain commonalities.

Most European colonialism, for example, first took the form of settlement colonies, which had in common a number of things some, although not all, of which apply to Christmas Island.

These include: The displacement of native populations and the inculcation of a European world view on them; the exile of white settlers such as through the transportation of convicts; and the transplantation of other non-native peoples through slavery and indentured labour. These forms of diaspora hinged around cascading levels of marginality and perceptions of the relations between the centre and the periphery.

For instance, while white settlers felt rejected and inferior to their kin in the motherland, they retained alternative hierarchical structures in their colonies based on racial, gender, and class divisions.

As the following sections of this chapter will clearly outline there is little doubt that, historically at least, the political, legal, social and educational context of Christmas Island can be characterised as a system of institutionalised paternalism, colonialism and 58 racism, which began in the late 19′ century and continued well on into the latter half of the 20th century. Phosphate was a much sort after fertilizer in the rapidly developing farms of late 19th century Europe, Australia and New Zealand.

Surplus farm produce was needed for the growing populations of the industrialised world. Christmas Island later became part of a group of colonies known as the British Straights Settlements, which included the Malay peninsular islands of Penang and Singapore. In order to mine the phosphate in the most economically viable way, ‘cheap’, indentured Asian labour was brought or rather enticed to Christmas Island from war torn southern China, Malaya, Indonesia and the neighbouring Cocos Islands.

As with colonialist ventures elsewhere in the region, it was only through the use of such ‘ cheap’ labour that the mining and export of phosphate could yield desirable profit margins for British, Australian and New Zealand farms.

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